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higher transmittance in comparison to pristine graphene or rGO as illustrated in Figure 1.13, upper right panel [82]. The electronic properties of graphene can also be changed by reducing the dimensions of the graphene layers. As illustrated in Figure 1.12, graphene quantum dots (GQDs) consisting of one or few graphene layers with size less than 100 nm show new optoelectronic properties, because of the quantum confinement and the effect of the large percentage of edge atoms. GQDs have a band gap and exhibit a strong photoluminesence, which can be tuned by controlling their size and other morphological factors (Figure 1.12C) [83–88]. Finally the optical transitions in graphene can also be changed by applying a gate voltage in a field-emitting transistor configuration [89]. This is also the way to tune the band gap in bilayer graphene [90]. 1.3.5 X-Ray Diffraction Pattern The different steps for the isolation of graphene from graphite are suitably monitored by collecting XRD patterns of the starting material, intermediates, and the final product. As shown in Figure 1.13, graphite exhibits a basal reflection (002) peak at 2𝜃 = 26.6◦ which corresponds to a d spacing of 0.335 nm and represents the interlayer distance. After the oxidation of graphite and before exfoliation the graphite oxide interme- diate basal (002) reflection peak is shifted to 11.2◦ which corresponds to a d spacing of 0.79 nm. This increase in the interlayer space is attributed to the intercalation of 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 2θ (°) Figure 1.13 X-ray diffraction patterns of pristine graphite, graphite oxide, and graphene. (Reproduced with permission from [91].) 1.3 Characterization of Graphene 17 Graphene Graphite oxide Pristine graphite IntensityPDF Image | An Introduction to Graphene
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