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peak pressures of up to 6 GPa20. Intense liquid jets (jetting) with pressures of up to 1 GPa can also be generated during inertial collapse21. In a typical sonication environment, such as a sonic bath or sonotrode, both types of cavitation can exist simultaneously. Fig. 1 | Acoustic cavitation metrology tools and measurements. (a) Schematic of the growth and collapse of cavitating bubbles in response to an applied acoustic field and the associated pressure wave. (b) Photograph of the National Physical Laboratory’s 17 litre multi-frequency reference cavitating vessel with transducers around the circumference. (c) The frequency spectrum of cavitation signals arising from stable and inertial cavitation. The presence of harmonic activity is indicative of stable cavitation activity and the rise in the background noise is indicative of inertial cavitation activity. (d) Ecav and the graphene yield as a function of the pre-amp voltage (the output voltage of a signal generator that was used to drive the reference vessels top row of 21.06 kHz transducers via a 400 W power amplifier). The hashed rectangle represents the pre-amp voltage range over which graphene was produced in this study. The uncertainty in Ecav is associated with the standard deviation of five independent measurements. In this work, acoustic cavitation was generated by a multi-frequency reference cavitating vessel (Fig. 1b) that is capable of producing stable and reproducible cavitation fields with a well-defined acoustic 5PDF Image | Cavitation Liquid Phase Exfoliation of Graphene
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