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Inertial cavitation dose To evaluate the role of inertial cavitation on the liquid phase exfoliation of graphene, graphite with a narrow 45-75 πm size distribution (Supplementary Information 2.3), was exfoliated over a range of both pre-amp voltages (shown in Fig. 1c) and sonication times. As πΈπππ£ is a direct and real time measurement of the inertial cavitation activity, which is the stimulus driving the liquid phase exfoliation of graphene, multiplying πΈπππ£ by the total sonication time, t, quantifies the accumulated dose of inertial cavitation, (ICD), experienced by the graphite and graphene flakes during sonication. This method for characterising the accumulated inertial cavitation activity has also featured in medical ultrasound studies with analogous measurement protocols26-28. As the value of πΈπππ£, and therefore ICD is dependent on the waveform capture settings (vertical resolution, timebase and sampling rate), the MHz frequency band over which it is calculated, the frequency response of the hydrophone, and the hardware filtering and amplification in the signal chain (Fig. S1.1), absolute values obtained are arbitrary, though the units of ICD can be considered as volts squared. However, as the πΈπππ£ measurements in this work were carried out using the same measurement protocol, the resultant ICD measurements are directly comparable. Figure 2a shows that the graphene yield has a power law relationship with ICD, such that there is a linear relationship between the graphene yield and the square root of the ICD (Fig. 2b). As the ICD is a product of πΈπππ£ and sonication time, this square root relationship explains the observation of graphene yield increasing as a function of the square root of sonication time13. The graphene yield, given by ((ππβπππ) β 100), where ππ is the graphene concentration (Supplementary Information 1) and πππ is the graphite concentration, can thus be further enhanced by either increasing the inertial cavitation intensity or the sonication time. The highest graphene yield measured was ~18%, which is amongst the highest in the graphene production literature. During exfoliation trials, it was found that sonication times beyond 120 minutes resulted in anomalously high graphene yields that appeared to deviate from the power law relationship with ICD (Fig. S2.6). 7PDF Image | Cavitation Liquid Phase Exfoliation of Graphene
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