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can produce such pressure changes. When the liquid passes through the constriction there is an increase in velocity of flow accompanied by a drop in pressure. If the pressure around the vena contracta drops below a critical threshold (typically the vapour pressure of the liquid at the operating temperature) then vapourisation occurs and cavitation bubbles are produced. Experiments were conducted in a Panda Plus 2000 homogenizer (GEA Niro Soavi, Parma, Italy) previously used to generate high shear rates for the exfoliation of graphene from graphite [26]. The technology was originally developed to create stable emulsions or dispersions by forcing a fluid through a conduit onto an impact head that can be moved to create an adjustable gap (1â500 Ξm) (Fig. 2). By treating diaromatic components in the apparatus with a high upstream pressure (ð·ð = 600â1500 bar) and a low downstream pressure (ð·ð = 30 bar) it is possible to generate a fast moving cavitating flow and therefore utilise the homogeniser as a hydrodynamic reactor [27]. {Fig. 2.} 2.2 Characterisation details 2.2.1 TEM Dispersions were filtered onto a holey carbon film suspended on 300 mesh copper TEM grids (Agar Scientific Ltd, Stansted UK). Imaging was performed in transmission mode using a Phillips CM20 TEM (Phillips, now FEI/Thermo-Fischer, Eindhoven) at 200 kV beam energy. 2.2.2 SEM and EDX Analysis on powder samples was carried out using a Leo (now Zeiss) 1455VP SEM at 20 kV beam energy with 30 pA beam current. EDX analysis was performed using an Oxford Instruments X-Act ultra-thin window EDX detector with Oxford INCA acquisition and processing software. Images were acquired of a typical area at x500 and x5000 magnification. 2.2.3 Raman spectroscopy Raman spectra were recorded using a Renishaw InVia Raman Microscope (Renishaw plc., Wolton-upon-Edge, UK) with a 532 nm laser and 2400 l/mm (vis) grating and a Horiba Jobn-Yvon Xplora Plus Raman Microscope using a 532 nm laser. 2.2.4 XPS XPS studies were performed using a purpose-built ultra-high vacuum system equipped with a Specs PHOIBOS 150 electron energy analyser and Specs FOCUS 500 monochromated Al KïĄ X-ray source (Specs GmbH, Berlin, Germany). Samples were prepared for analysis by filtering 4PDF Image | graphene platelets with partial oxidation via cavitation
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