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graphene oxide (rGO). In these forms, GO and rGO can be useful for certain applications such as energy storage and composite materials 10. There is an intrinsic relationship between the different production methods and the type of graphene-based material that is produced, as illustrated in Figure 4. Although the focus of this review is on graphene production methods, the reduction approaches discussed below have been included for completeness. FIG 3 4. Existing production routes The ‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-down’ approaches are illustrated in Figure 4. Graphene of high quality can be produced through bottom-up approaches, which is suited for use in electronic devices. These techniques, however, have generally suffered from very low production rates. In contrast, top-down processes, which most commonly use liquid-phase exfoliation, produce graphene at much higher production rates but often result in noticeably lower quality. The re-stacking of the sheets produced is commonly restricted using suitable solvents or aqueous surfactant solutions (see Section 5.2). The resulting graphene has been typically reserved for composites, conductive inks, coatings and flexible electronics applications. FIG 4 Providing direct comparisons between the two production routes is challenging. Each route holds particular advantages and disadvantages in terms of use of feed materials and energy, pre- and post- processing requirements, graphene product specifications, technology and process complexity, environmental sustainability, and many other important aspects. Similarly, the properties required for the end-use application may determine the choice of production route. There are many applications where graphene of the highest quality and aspect ratio (lateral size to thickness ratio) is unnecessary. Considering the breadth of applications mentioned previously, it is probable that top-down approaches will provide the primary source of mass-produced graphene in the near future. The demand for graphene produced via top-down methods will, therefore, be influenced by the broad 13PDF Image | graphene production via nonoxidizing liquid exfoliation
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