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process routes that can now be categorized under two independent production approaches. These approaches, defined as ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’, produce a variety of graphene-based materials, including monolayer and multi-layer sheets, nanoscrolls and graphene oxides. Liquid-phase exfoliation is a top-down method which has a high potential for scale-up. This approach has demonstrated the highest production rates (~ 6 g h-1), but with comparatively low yield (< 5%). Electrochemical exfoliation achieved high yield graphene oxides in studies using HOPG (> 70%), and when combined with shear-assisted flows this method has produced low-defect flakes, which have some of the largest dimensions (~10 μm) for top-down approaches. The notable disparity in product characteristics across top-down approaches is linked to the multiple exfoliation mechanisms that have been investigated. Shear, collision, cavitation, chemical and electrochemical intercalation, the type of graphite precursor, solvent selection, and the inclusion of post-processing techniques such as centrifugation all impact graphene output. In contrast, bottom-up methods such as CVD and epitaxial growth, are less diverse and have the capability to synthesize high-quality monolayer sheets with larger lateral sizes ranging from tens of μm2 to several cm2. While this is preferable for applications that require high carrier mobility (~ 105 cm2 V-1 s-1), there is no clear indication of potential rates of production. Bottom-up methods can also require post-processing steps to remove the graphene sheets from the substrate on which it has been grown. The lack of convergence towards a single all-encompassing method is due to the material requirements of the potential end-use applications. Energy storage and generation, flexible and printed electronics, and composites can be addressed using top-down approaches. High-end electronics and the ability to integrate with semiconductor devices are applications which need a high-quality product achievable by bottom-up approaches. Across all production approaches, it is anticipated that the future developments for graphene will be around tunable morphology, proven reliability and repeatability, and sustainable and safe 60PDF Image | graphene production via nonoxidizing liquid exfoliation
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