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$ kWh-1, the separate/recover/reuse scheme enables more lenient targets for the decay rate (≤0.06 % capacity loss per day at the baseline electrolyte cost of ~50 $ kWh-1) and the electrolyte cost (≤30 $ kWh-1 at the baseline decay rate of 0.1 % capacity loss per day). However, these cost and performance targets are highly dependent on the service fee, particularly for the separate/recover/reuse scheme. To contextualize these electrolyte cost targets, we can look to the limited techno-economic studies on aqueous organic electrolytes (note: all studies assume an average cell voltage of 1.5 V). Darling et al. estimated the electrolyte cost for an aqueous organic RFB to be ~235 $ kWh-1 in 2014, and between 45 and 90 $ kWh-1 in the “future” [61]. The 2018 work by Dieterich et al. modeled the production cost of AQDS (~157 grams per mole electron, assuming a two-electron transfer), a well-known finite-lifetime active species for RFBs that is relatively easy and low-cost to manufacture [24,133], and estimated the total electrolyte cost for an AQDS chemistry (assuming the cost of the negative and positive electrolytes are approximately equal) to be 50 and 65 $ kWh- 1 at production scales ~100 and ~200 MWh of flow battery capacity deployed per year, respectively [104]. Based on their estimates of materials costs alone, it is difficult to envision reducing electrolyte costs below 30 $ kWh-1 while utilizing existing production methods (regardless of production scale). Furthermore, a recent study by Gregory et al. estimates that reducing the electrolyte price of an aqueous RFB system using AQDS on the negative side or a ferrocyanide- based positive electrolyte to our baseline electrolyte cost of 25 $ kWh-1 per side (i.e., 50 $ kWh-1 overall) would require a production scale equivalent to producing 10 GWh of flow batteries per year [125]. Currently, there only ~100 MWh of RFBs deployed globally, with another ~1 GWh contracted, announced, or under construction [11]. These studies clearly demonstrate that low-cost (i.e., ≤50 $ kWh-1) electrolytes for finite-lifetime chemistries will require one or more of the following factors: the use of previously unstudied active molecules, development of new production pathways for existing active molecules (e.g., AQDS), internal production of the active molecules by the RFB company (to minimize markups by suppliers), and/or drastic increases to production scale (either by growth of the RFB market utilizing these chemistries and/or other markets for these active species). Therefore, the more promising pathways to viable asymmetric chemistries with finite lifetimes are those that can enable low service fees or low decay rates. With respect to electrolyte decay rates, those reported in the literature range five orders of magnitude (from as low as order 0.001 to as high as order 10, in units of % capacity loss per day), 52PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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