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$ kW-1, respectively). These numbers align with other techno-economic assessments of these systems [6,25]. Despite also facing capacity loss due to hydrogen evolution at a rate ~20× that seen in VRFBs (~1 % vs 0.055 % of capacity loss to hydrogen evolution per cycle) [19,25,145], the Fe-Cr system also shows improvement over VRFBs in terms of LCOS. We estimate the LCOS of Fe-Cr to be ~260 $ MWh-1, a moderate reduction from the LCOS of the VRFB (~290 $ MWh- 1). Even artificially increasing the hydrogen evolution-induced capacity fade rate in the Fe-Cr system to as much as 10% capacity loss per cycle does not raise the LCOS of the Fe-Cr system above 270 $ MWh-1. Modeling details used to derive these numbers can be found throughout the SI. The techno-economic promise for Fe-Cr is evident, however, the capital cost of the system still exceeds the Department of Energy target of ≤150 $ kWh-1 for viable grid storage [9,10]. Reductions in the power costs (i.e., beyond the chemistry choices probed in this work, perhaps by increasing the duration or using lower-cost reactor materials) are likely needed. There is, however, the potential for further cost reductions for the Fe-Cr system with any significant improvements to performance. Most of the Fe-Cr research was executed in the 1970’s and 1980’s when NASA first introduced this chemistry as the first true RFB while exploring energy storage solutions for deep- space missions [146]. Research into the Fe-Cr system has been limited relative to that for VRFBs, and it is likely that many of the significant improvements to the VRFB system seen over the past 5-10 years can be applied to the Fe-Cr system to increase performance and reduce costs. Some of this has already been demonstrated; for example, recent studies have shown the benefits of advanced cell engineering and optimized electrolyte composition for the Fe-Cr system [110,122]. 3.3 Eliminating crossover with ceramic membranes Membranes with perfect selectivity for the desired charge-carrier species, such as non-porous, single ion-conducting (SIC) materials, could eliminate crossover losses experienced by stable RFB chemistries, obviating the need for symmetric and pseudo-symmetric electrolytes. Research into SIC membranes, mainly ceramics and ceramic-polymer composites, for RFBs has been limited, with most studies employing them for energy dense semi-solid/hybrid redox chemistries or systems utilizing two electrolytes of different pH [115–119,147]. More extensive exploration has likely been hampered by the absence of broadly-available commercial materials, the lack of cross- disciplinary expertise between the fields, and the experimental challenges of integrating a ceramic 59PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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