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Vanadium production is concentrated in China (62%), Russia (21%), South Africa (10%), and Brazil (7%), where the parenthetical percentages represent each country’s proportion of global vanadium production [53]. With so few countries dictating the supply, the global vanadium market can experience strong price volatility in response to local changes (see Figure IV-1) [47], and this uncertainty in future prices can make it difficult for these large-scale and capital-intensive VRFB systems to attract investment. Further, the geographic concentration would require most countries to outsource their vanadium, so that sizable VRFB deployments would increase dependence on global supply chains. For this reason, vanadium was declared one of 35 “critical minerals” – minerals that are deemed vital to the Nation's security and economic prosperity but are primarily imported to the US – by the US Department of the Interior in 2018 [54]. Beyond the geographic concentration, looking within those few countries that produce vanadium, there is even more severe concentration of supply as the majority of production arises from only a few facilities. Before exploring supply sources, an understanding of the current approaches to vanadium beneficiation is necessary. In general, vanadium must be extracted from vanadium- bearing compounds, of which there are two categories. The first is mined shale- and sandstone- hosted deposits, from which vanadium is currently recovered most often as vanadium titanomagnetite (VTM). The other category is vanadium-bearing waste products of carboniferous materials (e.g., coal, crude oil, oil shale, and tar sands), typically residues from burning and refining oil herein referred to as “secondary sources” [48,49]. The vanadium content of these materials can vary widely: generally, minerals from the earth contain £ 5 wt% V2O5, while slags and other waste streams are often more concentrated. Because of the low grade of vanadium found in minerals, mining of vanadium is often performed indirectly as a compliment to other materials (e.g., iron for steel). Thus, there are three pathways for vanadium production (Figure IV-3): 1) co- /by-product production in steel mills (75% of global production), 2) mines dedicated primarily to vanadium production (10% of global production), and 3) secondary sources (15% of global production) [45]. All three methods utilize some subset of a common repertoire of extraction and refinement techniques. In general, roasting (oxidation at high temperatures) is followed by leaching, where the vanadium is dissolved into an acidic or basic aqueous phase. The vanadium is then concentrated and recovered via solvent extraction or ion-exchange processes, after which it is precipitated as ammonium metavanadate (AMV, NH4VO3) or ammonium polyvanadate (APV, [NH4]2V6O16). From there, the APV or AMV precipitate is de-ammoniated and fused to produce 68PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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