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to upgrade precursors are high or degradation requires too-frequent replacement of materials) or cannot achieve necessary technical performance metrics. Many other RFB systems may ultimately struggle to compete with the high-performing VRFB system that already overcomes a lot of challenges presented by other chemistries. In this sense these “limits” could spark meaningful growth to the VRFB and, potentially, RFB markets broadly that will catalyze important reductions in cost and perceived risk, facilitating further deployment. 4. Opportunities to expand and stabilize the global vanadium supply chain In this section, we look at opportunities to scale vanadium production more rapidly through expansion and de-concentration of the supply chain, as well as other market solutions to reduce the burden of the high and uncertain upfront cost of vanadium. 4.1 Vanadium production scale-up opportunities To meet or exceed the limits identified for 2030 and 2050 deployment (which assume 10% CAGRs), production scale-up must dramatically accelerate relative to historic vanadium CAGRs (< 4%) [49,72]. Rapid supply chain growth relies on the expansion of existing vanadium production routes as well as economical beneficiation of new vanadium precursor sources. While vanadium is not scarce and exists in many regions of the world, it presents in low grades and thus is costly to extract. Prior to considering different routes for production expansion, it is useful to contemplate other metals that have historically shown high CAGRs and the factors that contributed to those growth rates. Cobalt and indium are two metals produced as co-/by-products that have seen significant growth in recent decades due to drastic demand increases driven by technology adoption. The global production of cobalt, a critical component of positive electrode chemistries in advanced LIBs (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide, nickel-cobalt-aluminum, nickel-manganese-cobalt), has grown by over 7.5× (i.e., an average CAGR of ~8%) since the mid-1990’s due to ever-expanding demand for LIBs in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and stationary energy storage [75]. Despite the increased 76PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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