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and thus high CEs and low DRs. Unfortunately, the impact of impurities for all of the cases summarized in Table V-1 is limited to qualitative comparisons, as most papers do not report electrolyte chemical purities. Even if these values were reported, it would not be sufficient since the speciation of the impurities would also need to be known for a quantitative assessment of the impact. Table V-2. The expected impact on VE and CE of three key factors. Higher total electrode surface area Impurities that can readily be reduced at the negative electrode Addition of Bi catalysts Impact on VE Higher, due to lower reaction turnover rates per actual area at given operating geometric current density None expected Higher, due to reduced overpotential on negative electrode Impact on CE Indirectly higher*, due to reduced overpotentials Lower, if these reduced impurities act as HER catalysts Indirectly higher*, due to reduced overpotentials on negative electrode Interactions Lower density of reduced impurities (and Bi, if present) per actual area Less impact with higher surface area electrodes or with the addition of Bi Lower density and attenuated HER from reduced impurities since Bi counteracts effects of impurities on negative electrodes * The relation is indirect under the assumption that the reduced overpotential enabled by the factor encourages operation at higher current density, and thus higher CE. To investigate the origin of the deposited species during electrochemical purification, we performed scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) on the negative electrodes used in the purification step comparing the results to those of an unexposed heat-treated SGL 39AA electrode (see Figure S2 in the Supporting Information of this work, found in Appendix A). While the SEM / EDS revealed that the negative electrode used in the purification process additionally exhibited Fe, Cr, and chlorine signals in addition to carbon and oxygen species and trace silicon from the electrode, it remains difficult to pinpoint the precise phases of the plated contaminants without a more detailed spectroscopic analysis. Although we posit that the effect of high concentrations of active species and impurities from various sources 104PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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