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incorporates advantages from efficient energy conversion systems and scalable en- ergy storage technologies. Nonetheless, the energy conversion efficiency still cannot rival the counterpart photovoltaic systems, and the long-term stability has yet to be demonstrated. The membrane-free design can dramatically decrease the stack cost of RFBs, which is eagerly anticipated in commercial applications. Meanwhile, the charge carrier transport and potential parasitic reactions at the cath- olyte-anolyte interface should be fundamentally studied in the next step. Currently, some innovative RFBs are inching their way toward commercialization, and a comprehensive parameter matrix should be taken into consideration in eval- uating the nascent energy systems, including the energy density, power density, safety, efficiency, environmental impact, lifespan, and stack cost. Especially, the stack cost, which is one of the most important criteria in practical cells, is always ne- glected in designing novel RFBs even though higher energy and/or power densities can be realized. Additionally, a more comprehensive study integrating redox spe- cies modification, chemical characterization, and computational modeling is vital for fundamental understanding and boosting the battery performance of those new-concept energy technologies. For example, the battery reactions and pro- cesses can be vividly visualized via the well-developed operando techniques, such as X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, electron microscopy, gas chromatog- raphy, and scanning probe microscopy.100 Those novel methodologies can help to better elucidate the phenomena inside the new battery chemistry and promote the cell performance as well. To sum up, this review provides general principles and guidelines to build high-performance RFBs based on new approaches and chemistries to meet the ever-increasing energy needs in modern society. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS G.Y. acknowledges financial support from Exxon Mobil Corp, a Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar Award, and a Sloan Research Fellowship. REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. Adesina, O., Anzai, I.A., Avalos, J.L., and Barstow, B. (2017). Embracing biological solutions to the sustainable energy challenge. Chem 2, 20–51. 2. Lips, D., Schuurmans, J.M., Branco dos Santos, F., and Hellingwerf, K.J. (2018). Many ways towards ‘solar fuel’: quantitative analysis of the most promising strategies and the main challenges during scale-up. Energy Environ. Sci. 11, 10–22. 3. Zhang, P., Guan, B.Y., Yu, L., and Lou, X.W. (2018). Facile synthesis of multi-shelled zns- cds cages with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance for solar energy conversion. Chem 4, 162–173. 4. 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