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of-the-art Li-ion batteries [18]. In contrast to this, the US Department of Energy has set a capital cost target of $100(kWh)−1 to achieve market penetration [20]. A large contribution to the costs of VRFBs comes from the vanadium pentoxide mineral used to produce the electrolytes. As shown in Figure 1.2, the price of vanadium pentoxide previously reached almost $180 (kW h)−1 and has fluctuated considerably over time, as a result of its dependency on the production of high-performance steel [20]. These factors have incentivised the search for cheaper alternatives to the vanadium electrolytes. At the same time, RFBs would become more attractive if they employed sustainably sourced active materials. 40 30 20 10 200 150 100 50 00 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Year Figure 1.2: Development of the vanadium pentoxide price in USD per weight (left axis) and USD per achieved energy (right axis, assuming a cell voltage of 1.4 V [21]) over the past 5 decades [22]. One such alternative is organic redox-active compounds, specifically compounds from the quinone family. Work on quinone RFBs started in 2009, when a 4,5-dihydroxybenzene- 1,3-disulfonic acid (BQDS) electrolyte was cycled against a solid lead electrode [23]. The quinone species are attractive due to their structural flexibility, which makes it possible to tune several of the important parameters, such as redox potential, solubility, and stability, by engineering the functional groups. This has in recent years led to the design and study of quinones with extrapolated lifetimes of several years [24, 25]. Furthermore, the fact that quinones contain earth-abundant elements (hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) could potentially lead to inexpensive production [26] and facilitate the use of sustainable source materials. Numerous quinones have since been studied experimentally for aqueous electrolytes [24, 25, 27–33], supported by computational studies to evaluate which compounds might have the right properties for use in RFB electrolytes [34, 35]. But given the structural flexibility of quinones, a myriad of compounds are still waiting to be explored. The scope of this thesis is to investigate the electrochemical characteristics of a range of quinones for use in aqueous organic RFBs (ORFBs) and to study the influence of several experimental conditions on the reactor performance. In addition to the quinones, the ferri- /ferrocyanide couple was characterised to act as the posolyte material for cell cycling and as the model system for reactor performance studies. The experimental work was divided 3 Price [$ kg−1] Price [$ (kW h)−1]PDF Image | Organic Redox Flow Batteries 2023
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