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while others rely on a simpler, flow-through configuration. Both carbon felt electrodes and thinner, carbon paper electrodes have been used. It is also important to mention that, unlike fuel cells, current densities above 0.5 A/cm2 are readily achievable without any sort of catalysis. This reduces the cost of the electrodes and improves lifetime. Because the electrolytes are highly acidic, it is important that the flow frame in contact with the electrolytes is inert and resists corrosion. At lab-scale, the solutions are usually pumped with syringe pumps or peristaltic pumps. 1.5 Performance Benchmarks The first fully functional VRFB was developed at the University of New South Wales in 1985. This system provided a power density of up to 85 mW/cm2. Since then, commercial systems have been implemented, many of which can store multiple MWh [5]. Energy cost estimates for large scale systems are roughly $500 per kWh, though cost scales nonlinearly with scale [5]. A comparison of VRFBs to traditional batteries is given in Table 1.2. It can be seen that flow batteries are only competitive based on durability and scalability, not high performance. Table 1.2: Performance of VRFBs compared to traditional batteries. specific energy voltage capacity scale lifetime (cycles) cost Li-ion battery 150 Wh/kg 3.5 V kWh 2,000 $500/kWh Lead-Acid Battery 35 Wh/kg 2 V kWh 500 $150/kWh VRFB 25 Wh/kg 1.25 V kWh-MWh 10,000 $500/kWh As flow batteries enter the market, improvement strategies are continuously being developed at the lab scale. Power density is one of the most important metrics to be improved, and there are many possible avenues to improvement. For instance, one group found that simply by thermally pre-treating electrodes, power could be improved by 26% [6]. One of the most recent and significant breakthroughs in performance was 5PDF Image | PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A REDOX FLOW BATTERY
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