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REVIEW Li and Liu 101 Table 2. Structures and redox mechanisms of various types of organic materials. Structure Conjugated hydrocarbon Conjugated amine Conjugated thioether Organodisulfide Thioether (4e) Nitroxyl radical Conjugated carbonyl Redox mechanism up. The high resistance across the interface between the membrane and the electrode and poor chemi- cal compatibility also are a significant problem. The solution is likely a composite membrane or a mul- tilayer structure that includes both ceramics and polymers. The key challenge for these alternative membranes is maintaining or improving the ionic conductivity, selectivity and chemical stability. Be- yond ionic conductivity, chemical stability to re- dox electrolytes, physical stability in large-format cells and species selectivity are also very impor- tant. Replacing ion-exchange membranes with in- expensive porous separators can effectively reduce the total cost for both aqueous and non-aqueous systems [26,76,82,83]. Many groups have studied ‘single-ion’ polymers based on block copolymers, including PEO and polystyrene polymer with Li salts [84,85] and star-shaped poly(styrene)-block- poly[poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ethyl methacry- late] [86]. The basic idea is to enhance ion conduc- tivity in the soft phase, and to improve stability in the rigid phase. To date, new commercially viable com- posite membranes have not emerged. SEMI-SOLID FLOW BATTERIES Because all redox chemistry is currently limited by the solubility of the electroactive species, Chiang’s group first proposed the concept of a semi-solid RFB, enabling the RFB to be comparable to Li-ion batteries [87]. As shown in Fig. 2d [87], the particu- late active materials are dispersed in the electrolyte as suspensions, essentially achieving ‘infinite solu- bility’ compared to traditional redox solutions. To achieve electronic charge transfer between the ac- tive material particles and the current collector, the active materials and conductive additives (carbon) were dispersed in a typical Li-ion battery electrolyte solution to form a percolation nanoscale conductor network in the flowable electrode suspensions. The high ‘solubility’ of the active materials in the suspen- sions and the high cell potential lead to significant increases in energy density. For example, semi-solid LiCoO2 /Li4 Ti5 O12 produced an average 2.35-V discharge voltage with 397 Wh/L of theoretical en- ergy density. Figure 4d shows the charge/discharge curves of this full cell. This concept was extended to a Li/S flow battery to fully use sulfur species in Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/4/1/91/2866462 by guest on 11 January 2023PDF Image | Progress in low cost redox flow batteries energy storage
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