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minimal purification necessary, the spent capital costs is therefore not lost but is merely an investment. With respect to recycling, the VRFB, and RFBs in general, have a clear advantage over LIBs in which the single components are more intimately entangled and cannot be separated easily. Second possibility is to replace vanadium as active element by cheaper molecules. Substitution of vanadium by organic molecules that only contain cheap elements [90,119,129] is envisioned, or by replacing it with cheaper metals such as iron and chromium [166] or manganese [143]. Whatever the strategy, Darling et al. concluded that the active species should not cost more than US$5 kg-1 and the electrolyte not more than US$0.1 kg-1 (for aqueous systems) assuming a weight of not more than 150 g per mole of electrons stored [163]. They further concluded that while the design space for non-aqueous systems seems wider than for aqueous chemistries, the additional costs for the electrolyte (must not cost more than US$5 kg-1) imposes additional hurdles that need to be taken by the chemistry such as > 3 V and c > 4 M. Therefore, our conclusion is that the ideal system in terms of cost is either a combination of two aqueous redox couples that can be easily produced large-scale and are cheaper than US$5 kg-1, or that there is rethinking regarding the VRFB system, with the electrolyte not seen as something that is spent after but as an investment that keeps its value, or might even increase in value during the operation of the battery. 9. Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge Newcastle University and Siemens AG for funding. Page 46 of 63PDF Image | Redox Flow Batteries Concepts Chemistries
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