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shown non-homogeneous patterns in some interdigitated flow fields [58], a concern that must be solved for successful scale-up. Primary, secondary, tertiary or actual current distributions, as well as the method for coupling mass transfer to the tertiary distribution are missing from these studies. On the other hand, validation of potential distribution during mass transfer limiting conditions has been achieved using platinum probes [59]. Numerical simulations have addressed shunt currents in cell stacks. For instance, in conjunction to electrode overpotentials and manifold ionic current [60], and in terms of electrochemical reaction rate distribution [61]. As shown in Fig. 3, the latter study highlights that localised corrosion due to opposite, parasitic electrode reactions can take place near electrolyte manifolds if the stack does not incorporate anti-shunt currents features. The trade-off of shunt current distribution has also been estimated for different stack configurations [46]. In previous studies, scenarios that allow shunt currents have been deliberately analysed. Effective preventing measures must also be modelled. Equivalent circuits of shunt currents in utility-scale devices continue to be an effective tool to predict losses and optimise the number of cells [62]. Manufacturing, materials and utility-scale research needs The manufacture of RFBs aims to achieve reliability over extended life-time, dimensional tolerances for scale-up and cost-effective mass production. Few works have focused on the longevity of materials. For instance, degradation of proposed polypropylene [63] and sulfonated membranes [64], or aging of carbon felt [65,66,67]. Regarding manufacturing tolerances, stacks under compression are now being evaluated using X-ray computed tomography (CT) [68], revealing possible deformation after assembly or over time. This 9PDF Image | Redox flow batteries for energy storage challenges
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