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approach could be used to validate mechanical stress distribution models [52]. CT is also being employed to study the effect of compression on carbon felt properties [27], and to determine the surface area of porous electrodes (but only after calibration and validation of the methodology) [69]. In relation to materials research, limited attention has been given to the advantages and limitations of composite membranes [70,71] and to the homogeneity of carbon felt, which is important in large cells. Considerations such as electrolyte fluid flow, mass transfer, pressure drop, active electrode surface area and current distribution at relatively large electrodes become important at a realistic scale [11]. Hence the need to obtain data from larger cells which experience edge and manifold effects, flow maldistribution, and shunt currents, all under power conditioning regimes [35,72,73,74,75]. If needed, practical characterisations of such systems can be carried out in a cost-effective manner. This has been demonstrated for a utility-scale vanadium RFB, shown in Fig. 4, which was studied in energy efficiency terms (accounting for convertor efficiency, parasitic reactions and pumping demands) by using accurate transducers and instrumentation. Meanwhile, the development of extended-area, flexible 2.5 m2 electrodes based on welded carbon felt-sheets has been announced [76]. Mathematical models have shown that such an intensive scale-up could bring down RFBs capital costs significantly [43]. The design of large cells could benefit from experience in chlor-alkali stacks, although it will be essential to study and report the effects of flow dispersion, pump energy demand and concentration gradients on their efficiency. Regarding the development of bipolar plates, the requirements for the manufacture of flow fields should be discussed, together 10PDF Image | Redox flow batteries for energy storage challenges
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