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While RFBs ought to be able to operate at relatively high current densities, as convection can be employed to deliver reactants to the electrode surface, RFBs have typically been operated at current densities consistent with conventional batteries without convection. It is anticipated that electrolyte improvements in power density, thereby reducing considerably cell material costs. 2.6.1 Various Redox flow batteries Several battery technologies have been considered for grid-based storage in recent decades. Traditional rechargeable batteries have been modified and optimized for grid-based storage and are being deployed in some installations, including lead- acid, nickel-based, and lithium-ion batteries. However, we turn our attention to RFBs, which have been demonstrated on the order of 100 kW to 10 MW. RFBs are generally categorized based upon the anolyte and catholyte that comprise the form of energy storage of the system. Configurations with the same element but different oxidation states, such as all-vanadium, as well as different active species in the anolyte and catholyte are used. In this section, we introduce the various important RFB types and briefly some of the advantages, disadvantages and challenges of each one. 2.6.1.1 Iron/chromium Modern development of what we might term as RFB began with the development of an iron/chromium system (Fe/Cr) in the 1970s at NASA, which demonstrated a 1kW/13kWh system for a photovoltaic-array application92,93. The Fe/Cr system is based upon an aqueous solution of a ferric/ferrous redox couple at the positive electrode (Fe2+/Fe3+), while the negative electrolyte is a mixture of chromic and chromous ions (Cr2+/Cr3+). Most systems use hydrochloric acid as the supporting electrolyte. The charge transfer reactions at each electrode are and (2.1) (2.2) The system can operate with an IEM/separator and low-cost carbon-felt electrodes. Both charge-transfer reactions require only a single electron transfer, which is expected to simplify charge transfer and result in reasonable surface over- potentials without specific electrocatalysts. Indeed, the iron redox couple is highly reversible on carbon or graphite electrodes, but the chromium redox couple has significantly slower kinetics and does require electrocatalysts. This system has a 26PDF Image | Redox Flow Batteries Vanadium to Earth Quinones
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