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Study of redox flow battery systems for residential applications 50/50 mixture of V3+ (V2(SO4)3) and V4+ (VOSO4) ions in aqueous sulfuric acid, which is typically called “fresh” V3.5+ ion vanadium solution. Therefore, a pre-charge of the battery is necessary so all the V3+ ions can be oxidized to VO2+ on positive half-cell, and the VO2+ ions can be reduced to V3+ on the negative half-cell to match the discharge state of the battery. Two examples of commercial vanadium electrolyte solution can be found on Appendix B.2, Figure B.1 and Figure B.2. The electrolyte assumes different colours depending on the existing vanadium ions, where a solution with only V2+ ions is violet, with only V3+ ions is green, with only V4+ (or VO2+) ions is blue and with only V5+ (or VO2+) ions is yellow (Figure 2.4). V2+ V3+ V4+ V5+ Figure 2.4 – Colours of vanadium solutions with mainly V2+, V3+, V4+ and V5+ ions. When producing a vanadium electrolyte solution, vanadium ions and sulfuric acid concentrations must be taken into account. Jing et al. [44] reported that the optimal vanadium concentration is 1.6 M with a sulfuric acid concentration of 2.8 M, since higher energy efficiency is obtained due to the coupling effect of viscosity, conductivity and electrochemical activity. Such concentration of sulfuric acid also allows to maximize the solubility of each of the vanadium ions and prevent precipitation, which may occur for extreme temperatures limits (below 10 oC and above 40 oC) within the battery, as result of supersaturation. Despite increasing vanadium concentration would make energy density increase, vanadium ion concentration must not be higher than 2 M to minimize precipitation [29]. Other studies were conducted to improve electrolyte energy density, such as adding hydrochloric acid (HCl) [32]. Despite of the improvement obtained, toxicity hazard of added components and complexity of electrolyte preparation are concerning factors [42, 45, 46]. Chapter 2: Vanadium redox flow battery 13PDF Image | Tubular Vanadium Air Redox‐flow battery
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