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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al Introduction Nuria Tapia-Ruiz Department of Chemistry, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, United Kingdom The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, OX11 0RA, United Kingdom Na-ion batteries (NIBs) promise to revolutionise the area of low-cost, safe, and rapidly scalable energy-storage technologies. The use of raw elements, obtained ethically and sustainably from inexpensive and widely abundant sources, makes this technology extremely attractive, especially in applications where weight/volume are not of concern, such as off-grid energy storage, load levelling, and starting, lighting, and ignition batteries, which amount to a potential worldwide demand of ≈1 TWh. Given the similarities between the fundamental working principles and materials used in NIBs and the well-known rechargeable lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), the swift appearance of this technology in the market is to be expected, based on the use of existing battery manufacturing lines. Furthermore, NIBs can be stored and transported at 0 V, reducing the costs associated with expensive shipping and safety risks, and thus, they can be commercialised worldwide. Despite their tremendous potential, only a limited number of companies, such as Faradion (UK), Tiamat (Europe), Altris AB (Europe), HiNa (China), and Natron Energy (USA) are devoted to sodium battery development. These manufacturers do not follow a consensus on the choice of sodium chemistry (e.g., positive electrodes can be made from layered oxides, Prussian blue analogues, or vanadium-based polyanionic compounds, and used with aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytic solutions), allowing for market/application diversification, and importantly, highlighting the immense scope of NIB materials research by developing new chemistries for positive and negative electrodes and electrolytes. The multiple research prospects of NIBs have been recognised by the Faraday Institution, the UK’s independent institute for electrochemical energy storage research, which launched NEXt-GENeration NA-ion batteries (NEXGENNA) [1] in October 2019 as part of its research portfolio of post-lithium batteries. The NEXGENNA consortium combines a multidisciplinary and diverse team of academics at the forefront of research in their respective fields, and the chief players in the UK Na-ion battery industry, with the ambition to deliver a revolution in the development of high-performance, cost-competitive, safe, and long cycle-life Na-ion batteries for stationary and low-cost transportation applications. This 2021 NIB roadmap contains contributions from the NEXGENNA consortium and external project partners, as well as other relevant academics in the NIB field. The various contributions to this roadmap are divided into eight main research themes, ranging from fundamental experimental and computational science to large-scale industrial processing and techno-economic metrics, i.e. (a) cathode materials; (b) anode materials; (c) computational discovery of materials; (d) electrolytes and the solid–electrolyte interphase layer; (e) testing protocols; (f) advanced characterisation techniques, (g) manufacturing and scale-up, and (h) industrial targets and technoeconomics, totalling eight sections. Sections 1, 2 and 4 contain an overview of the most relevant to date inorganic and organic cathode, anode, and electrolyte materials in NIBs, with a focus, where possible, on industry-relevant families of electrodes and electrolyte materials, but without losing sight of novel emerging materials with enough potential to become the next generation of candidates. In parallel, supercomputing architectures and more accurate and cost-effective quantum chemistry approaches (covered in section 3) will undoubtedly help us to discover new materials in broad compositional ranges which otherwise would consume extensive research time. We include a subsection on the not-so-well-known solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer in section 4), given its critical but extremely challenging role (due to the soluble nature of its components) in the cycling stability and performance of NIBs. The unstable behaviour of the SEI may result in unreliable data interpretation and thus, electrochemical measurement protocols need to be established to avoid discarding potentially interesting candidate materials or making erroneous interpretations of results (section 5). Furthermore, characterisation of the SEI under operando or in-situ conditions will be crucial to provide good insight into the behaviour of this layer, and to draw correlations between electrolyte and electrode formulations, the physicochemical properties of the SEI, and battery performance. Similarly, understanding the long- and short-range processes occurring in electrode materials during battery operation is vital to characterise the charge-compensation mechanisms that occur in the different families of NIB materials. A relevant assortment of advanced in-situ/operando characterisation techniques—all used in the NEXGENNA advanced characterisation platform, is described in section 6. Sections 7 and 8 cover relevant manufacturing aspects of NIBs. This brings into play the use of full cells, which requires additional features that are not well considered in half-cell studies, including a good synergy between the cathode, anode, and electrolyte components, optimal electrode formulation, and architecture, among others. Finally, we provide an overview 4PDF Image | 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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