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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al defects and the importance of interlayer spacing, and x-ray PDF [102] has been used to understand the connectivity between ordered and disordered domains and the way Na travels throughout the hard carbon from defects and graphitic domains into the pores. Finally, significant machine learning efforts have recently been dedicated to the ‘in silico’ design of optimised carbons based on experimental characterisation techniques [94]. At a commercial level, the Japanese company Kuraray sells KURANODETM as a hard carbon for LIBs and NIBs, with good performance, but few structural details. This product is often used as a benchmark by many researchers developing optimisation strategies for NIBs at the cell level, as well as by some of the small and medium enterprises developing NIBs. Concluding remarks Much progress has been made in developing hard carbon anodes with outstanding performance for NIBs. Future optimisation could be possible via automation of the synthetic processes using robots coupled with machine learning. Benchmarking of the best-performing hard carbons would be ideal to unify the efforts of NIB developers and standardise protocols at an international level. Acknowledgment We would like to thank the EPSRC ISCF EP/R021554/2 for financial support to enable new discoveries in hard carbons for NIBs. 24PDF Image | 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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