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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al electron donor groups lower the working voltages, while electron-withdrawing groups tend to increase the redox potentials [150]. Heteroatom (N-atom) substitution in the backbone has resulted in higher capacities and smoother kinetics by virtue of favourable interactions with Na+ ions. In systems with sulphur (S) atoms, the capacity is seen to increase on account of the additional interaction sites, and the electronic conduction is also improved [151]. Apart from molecular features, bulk properties are known to affect the cycling performance of electrode materials. The morphology and particle size of the active organic material are seen to play significant roles in the practical capacities and kinetics of ion insertion [152]. Although atomic features lead to the modulation of electrochemical properties, even the conventionally studied molecules still show issues of cycling stability and volume expansion. In recent years, various porous materials displaying long-range order based on redox-active small organic molecules have been tested with the aim of circumventing the issues of solubility and stability. These include metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent organic frameworks (COFs), which are seen to be stable to cycling and can accommodate bulky Na+ ions [153]. However, research into porous materials has largely been confined to the preparation of electrochemically active hierarchical carbonaceous matter; and very few examples have used the pristine materials. Concluding remarks Organic battery materials are likely to contribute significantly to the pursuit of sustainable technologies. As anodes in NIBs, small organic molecules with redox-active groups such as carboxylate, azo, and imine have shown much promise. Several aspects of these compounds, such as their cycling stability, volumetric densities, and poor electronic conductivity, require more research to compete with benchmark materials. Much progress is anticipated through the incorporation of the knowledge gained and the extensive testing of novel solid-state materials based on the use of organic molecules as battery electrodes. The rich diversity of organic chemistry presents an opportunity to explore untapped redox-active groups and expand our understanding of molecular engineering to support the delivery of high-performance materials. In addition to fundamental objectives, practical parameters such as scalability and production costs also need to be addressed. Acknowledgment This research is funded by the Faraday Institution (Grant No. FIRG018). 35PDF Image | 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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