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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al Figure 27. Scheme of a half-cell configuration with the main properties required for reliable CEs and REs. Reproduced from [210]. CC BY 3.0. Figure 28. (a) GC/FTIR Gram–Schmidt reconstruction of gas from the reaction between Na metal and EC:DMC (1:1 w/w)-NaPF6 1 M, without FEC (a) after 5 d, (b) after 48 d, with 3% of FEC (c) after 5 d, (d) after 48 d. Reproduced from [213]. CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. (b) Charge/discharge curves (0.05 mA cm−2) of symmetric cells cycled at 25 ◦C using 0.1 M LiTFSI or NaTFSI in EC0.5:PC0.5. Reproduced from [210]. CC BY 3.0. (c) Nyquist diagrams of impedance measurements over time of symmetric Na/Na cell at 25 ◦C. Reproduced from [196]. CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. (d) Illustration of an artificial voltage step phenomenon observed in a two-electrode cell due to the Na CE (and RE). Reprinted from [212], Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier. could still be seen at 0.5 mA cm−2 [215]. A similar layer using 2.8 nm-thick Al2O3 produced via low-temperature plasma-enhanced atomic-layer deposition was found to significantly increase the cyclability of Na symmetric cells up to 0.5 mA cm−2 [216]. Another avenue used to tune the SEI stability is to adjust the electrolyte formulation. Since this approach has already been discussed in section 4.4, here, we will focus on the impact of a few selected electrolytes on the reliability of Na-metal CEs and REs. Fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) is a popular electrolyte additive in Na-ion batteries which limits the Na reactivity towards the electrolyte and helps in minimising the irreversibility of cathode materials. However, this does not come for free, and significant Na metal impedance increases can be measured together with a continuous release of small quantities of gases, even after 5 d [213]. Glyme-based electrolytes are among the most successful for Na metal. Schafzahl et al 54PDF Image | 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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