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J. Phys. Energy 3 (2021) 031503 N Tapia-Ruiz et al Figure 33. Top (a) principle of BEXP (www.lancastermaterialanalysis.co.uk/beam-exit-cross-sectional-polishing). The Ar beam enters the side of the sample below the surface, producing a near-atomically-flat low-damage surface adjacent to the untouched surface layer with an open angle and topographically flat geometry, which is perfectly suited for the follow-up SPM characterisation of physical properties. (b) Schematics of the BEXP approach for the preparation of a sample of cathode material. (c), (d) SPM 3D rendering of a Ni-rich cathode composite electrode with superimposed nanomechanical contrast; the cathode powder particle section clearly shows cracks that developed upon the change of SOC. (e) An SPM 3D rendering of a BEXP-prepared HOPG model anode with superimposed nanomechanical contrast obtained via ultrasonic fore microscopy (UFM); the cut area has sub-nm surface roughness. potential and conductance changes, when measured ex-situ, can provide additional information in such studies. Concluding remarks The real-space physical-property nanomapping of battery electrodes and interfaces via multifunctional SPM, combined with the efficient and artefact-free sample preparation approach via BEXP and nanotomography will provide a valuable characterisation toolbox for the development of the next generation of Na-ion batteries. Furthermore, it will allow the direct investigation of SEI stability and composition, the development of more robust cathode/anode–electrolyte interfaces, and the exploration of Na-ion intercalation, enabling the selection of a winning electrode–electrolyte combination. Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the the Faraday Institution (Grant No. FIRG018), the EU Graphene Flagship Core 3 project, the EPSRC project EP/V00767X/1, and the scientific and methodology insight provided by Marta Mucientes and Nuria Tapia-Ruiz. We are also grateful to our industrial partners Bruker, Leica Microsystems, and LMA Ltd. for their scientific and financial support. 64PDF Image | 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries
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