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Batteries 2022, 8, 272 10 of 20 Batteries 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19 indicate the cumulative loss of charge. The findings show that for carbon black and bismuth electrodes, the predicted sodium plating-stripping CE can reach 99.9% and 99.85%, respectively. The authors demonstrate that the deposition of sodium metal in a high surface area/volume ratio nucleation layer, corresponding to a lower nucleation overpotential and area/volume ratio nucleation layer, corresponding to a lower nucleation overpotential and a smaller nucleation size, leads to more serious electrolyte side reactions with deposited a smaller nucleation size, leads to more serious electrolyte side reactions with deposited sodium metal. Subsequently, an anode-free cell was also evaluated by selecting carbon sodium metal. Subsequently, an anode-free cell was also evaluated by selecting carbon black on Al foil as the anode, 1 M NaPF6 in diglyme as the electrolyte, and Na3V2(PO4)3 as black on Al foil as the anode, 1 M NaPF6 in diglyme as the electrolyte, and Na3V2(PO4)3 as the cathode. The cell showed a capacity retention of 82.5% after 100 cycles and an average the cathode. The cell showed a capacity retention of 82.5% after 100 cycles and an average roundtrip energy efficiency above 98%. roundtrip energy efficiency above 98%. Figure 5. Electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of the (a) carbon black, (b) hard carbon, (c) bis- Figure 5. Electrochemical charge/discharge profiles of the (a) carbon black, (b) hard carbon, (c) bis- −1 muth (Bi), and (d) tin (Sn) electrodes with a current rate of 0.1 A g −1 . Slippage profiles of the muth (Bi), and (d) tin (Sn) electrodes with a current rate of 0.1 A g . Slippage profiles of the Na Na plating/stripping on the four different nucleation layers over 50 cycles at a current density of plating/stripping on the four different nucleation layers over 50 cycles at a current density of 0.5 mA 0.5−2 mA cm−2: (e) carbon black, (f) hard carbon, (g) Bi, (h) Sn [63]. Reproduced with the permission cm : (e) carbon black, (f) hard carbon, (g) Bi, (h) Sn [63]. Reproduced with the permission of ref. of ref. [63] Royal Society of Chemistry, copyright 2018. [63] Royal Society of Chemistry, copyright 2018. Based on a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between the properties of the sodium nucleation layer and the plating–striping CE, researchers tend to explore various nu- cleation layers such as the nanocarbon nucleation layer formed on Al current collectors [64], metal−organic frameworks (MOF)-derived copper−-carbon (Cu@C) composite [65], or gra- phitic carbon−coated current collectors [23]. For instance, a nanocarbon nucleation layerPDF Image | Anode-Free Rechargeable Sodium-Metal Batteries
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