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Batteries 2022, 8, 180 4 of 23 tions which was characterized in order to determine the performance of symmetric full battery made of Na2VTi(PO4)3 electrode material, which exhibited the improved performance increasing NaClO4 concentrations as shown in Figure 2b. By using 6 M NaClO4, Luo and co-workers investigated the outstanding electrochemical perfor- mances of ASIBs including a high practical capacity of 104.6 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1, exceptional high-rate capability of 88.0 mAh g−1 at 2000 mA g−1, and strong cycling stability of 92% capacity retention after 100 cycles [33]. Kosuke and co-workers analyzed the electrochemical potential ranges of NaClO4 at 1 M and 17 M and ob- served that the electrochemical potential ranges were 1.9 and 2.8 V, respectively. By using two different electrolyte concentrations, the aqueous sodium-ion battery of Na1.24Mn[Fe(CN)6]0.8·1.28H2O/NaTi2(PO4)3 was constructed. With 17 M NaClO4 electrolyte, the cell has good cyclability and performance without significant degrada- tion. In spite of this, the aqueous electrolyte with 1 M NaClO4 showed significantly greater degradation after the first cycle, which established that electrolyte concen- trations of higher concentrations under higher flow rates contributed to more stable performance in an aqueous sodium-ion system [34]. In addition, the “water-in-salt” (WIS) technique has recently been employed in Na-ion aqueous electrolyte. The water-in-salt electrolyte represents a new type of super- concentrated electrolyte that differs from the dilute and concentrated electrolytes that we discussed above. According to its appearance, it reduces the amount of water in the electrolyte and effectively limits its chemical activity, thereby significantly increasing its electrochemical stability window. In spite of the lower concentration of Na-based WIS electrolyte in comparison with lithium-based WIS electrolyte due to Na-salt solubility, the stable electrolyte window nevertheless reaches 2.5 V, which could restrict the hydrogen evolution on the anode. A water-in-salt electrolyte was reported by Han and colleagues, consisting of 8 M sodium acetate and 32 M potassium acetate, with Na2VTi(PO4)3/C serving as both the cathode and anode materials (Figure 2c), giving a discharge voltage of 1.13 V and, after 500 cycles, the coulombic efficiency is over 99.9% at 10 C [35]. In spite of “water-in-salt” electrolytes being an attractive option to expand the electro- chemical stability window for aqueous electrolytes, their practical application is limited by electrode deterioration and irreversible proton insertion caused by aqueous environments. An ethanol–water-based system was described by Chua and co-workers for the formulation of hybrid electrolytes, where the ethanol was able to increase the electrochemical stability of the hybrid electrolytes and limit their dissolution. By using the hybrid electrolyte, it shows more excellent electrochemical performance than other aqueous electrolytes with high capacity and extraordinary cycling stability in Figure 2d. Furthermore, unlike in other aqueous electrolytes, where Na0.44MnO2 undergoes an irreversible phase change to MnOOH, it shows structural stability in the ethanol–water system when Na0.44MnO2 is maintained in its original phase [36].PDF Image | Aqueous Rechargeable Sodium-Ion Batteries Hydrogel
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