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Batteries 2019, 5, 10 7 of 15 2.6. Price of Final Battery Cell The estimation of the full cell price was based on BatPaC Version 3.0 by Argonne National Laboratories, one of the standard battery cost assessment tools that allows dimensioning and cost estimation of electric vehicle battery modules [17]. However, major modifications were made for adapting the model to the calculation of single cell costs independent of their final application instead of configuring automotive battery packs. The parts of the manufacturing plant cost estimations were modified where necessary and adapted to the fabrication of 18650 round cells, mainly based on the data provided by Ciez and Whitacre [23]. The plant throughput was assumed to be 200 Mio battery cells per year. Since the different cell chemistries showed different storage capacities (see Table 4 and Table S7), this was equivalent to 1.2 GWh/y for the SIB and 1.7 GWh/y for the NMC (due to its higher energy density). Compared to the original BatPaC model (0.8 GWh/year), this was a significantly higher plant output in terms of manufactured storage capacity (GWh/y). Additionally, since the 18,650 round cells showed a significantly lower capacity per single cell than the prismatic cells assumed by BatPaC, the number of cells produced annually was significantly higher, thereby increasing the costs associated with cell filling, sealing, and cycling. Since the production was assumed to be in Germany, the electricity and labor costs were adjusted accordingly (0.12 €/kWh and 25 €/h) [51]. 3. Results The final cell prices obtained for the three different battery chemistries are displayed in Figure 2. The LFP battery shows the highest price per kWh of storage capacity (229.3 €/kWh), followed by the SIB at 223.4 €/kWh. The NMC-type LIB is the cheapest (168.5 €/kWh), basically due to its high energy density. The material costs make up between 37% and 42% of the final cell price, and another 18–19% represent the investment costs (depreciation). Compared with Vaalma et al. [8], who did a comparison of the material costs of a 11.5 kWh SIB and LIB, these values are significantly lower, but Vaalma et al. did not assess the battery on the cell level, but rather for a whole battery pack. The additional peripheral components and corresponding lower energy density increased the price per kWh of storage capacity. When looking at the material costs without the cell hardware, values in the same order of magnitude are obtained, with the different energy densities of the modelled batteries and different cathode compositions being the principal reason for the discrepancies. The operation of the manufacturing plant (incl. R&D) contributes between 32 and 35%. Naturally, these (and thus also the final cell price) depend strongly on the plant size and the annual throughput. This is one of the reasons for the high variation in prices published in the literature, where values of between 145 and 289 €/kWh for NMC and between 225 and 303 €/kWh for LFP are given [17,21–26,52–54], with the lower values originating from the most recent publications. The price estimations from this work are situated at the lower end of this range, corresponding with this trend towards decreasing battery prices. In addition, scale effects influence battery prices significantly, but are not investigated further in this work since they would affect all battery types identically, and since this study’s main scope is the comparison of different battery types under comparable conditions. For all battery chemistries, the materials make up the highest share, although with varying contributions from the different cell components. For comparison, Figure 3 displays the contribution of the different cell components to the total material costs per single 18650 cell (i.e., comparing individual cells without considering their different energy densities). This provides a better picture of the influences from the different materials, since on a single cell basis, identical components also show the same contributions (the mass of the final cells varies only slightly between the different battery types). When comparing the obtained prices for LFP and NMC LIB with those available in the literature, a good fit can be observed.PDF Image | Exploring the Economic Potential of Sodium-Ion Batteries
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