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Review Article Chem Soc Rev boxes was insufficient for handling sodium, making it difficult to observe electrode performance. In the 1980s, prior to the commercialization of LIBS, a few US and Japanese companies developed SIBs in full cell configurations where a sodium-lead alloy composite and a P2-type NaxCoO2 were used as the anode and cathode, respectively. Despite the remarkable cyclability over 300 cycles, the average discharge voltages were lower than 3.0 V, which did not attract much attention against carbon// LiCoO2 cells exhibiting an average discharge voltage of 3.7 V.16–18 The battery components and the electrical storage mechanism of SIBs and LIBs are basically the same except for their ion carriers. In terms of cathode materials, the intercala- tion chemistry of sodium is very similar to that of lithium, making it possible to use similar compounds for both systems. However, there are some obvious differences between these systems. Na+ ions (1.02 Å) are larger compared to Li+ ions (0.76 Å), which affects the phase stability, transport properties, and interphase formation.9 Sodium is also heavier than lithium (23 g mol1 compared to 6.9 g mol1) and has a higher standard electrode potential (2.71 V vs. SHE as compared to 3.02 V vs. SHE for lithium); thus, SIBs will always fall short in terms of energy density. However, the weight of cyclable Li or Na is a small fraction of the mass of the components, and the capacity is determined primarily by the characteristics of the host structures that serve as electrodes. Hence, in principle, there should be no energy density consequences of the transi- tion from LIBs to SIBs.7 In addition, aluminum undergoes alloy reaction with lithium below 0.1 V vs. Li/Li+, which indicates that aluminum is available as a current collector for anodes in sodium cells. Therefore, aluminum is a cost-effective alter- native to copper as an anode current collector for SIBs. Various cathode materials for SIBs have been reported; for instance, layer and tunnel type transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides and fluorides, oxyanionic compounds, Prussian blue analogues and polymers. However, the search for an anode with appropriate Na voltage storage, a large reversible capacity, and high structural stability remains an obstacle to development of SIBs. Graphite, which is a common anode material in LIBs, has a moderate Li storage capacity (B350 mA h g1) at approximately 0.1 V vs. Li/Li+.2 Recent studies have demonstrated that graphite does not properly intercalate sodium ions.19,20 Non-graphitic anodes, which consist largely of various carbonaceous materials such as carbon black21 and pitch-based carbon-fibers,22 allow insertion of sodium ions. Hard carbons, which are synthesized at high temperatures from carbon-based precursors, have been comprehensively modeled,23,24 characterized,25 and thermally tested26 in Na cells. These non-graphitic carbonaceous materials are considered to be the ‘‘first-generation’’ anodes of choice for SIB systems. SIBs are not fabricated with sodium metal due to dendrite formation, high reactivity, and an unstable passivation layer in the most organic electrolytes at room temperature. The high reactivity of metallic sodium with organic electrolyte solvents and dendrite formation during Na metal deposition are even more problematic than they are in Li metal anodes. The low melting point of sodium at 97.7 1C also presents a safety hazard for devices using Na metal electrodes at ambient temperature.27 In order to integrate these renewable energies into the electrical grid, a large-scale energy storage system (ESS) is vital to peak shift operation.1 Among various energy storage technologies, using an electrochemical secondary battery is a promising method for large-scale storage of electricity due to its flexibility, high energy conversion efficiency, and simple maintenance.1,2 LIBs, which have become common power sources in the portable electronic market since their first commercialization by Sony in the early 1990s,3 are the primary candidates for ESSs. The introduction of LIBs into the automotive market as the battery of choice for powering hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) could reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Lithium, the primary ingredient in LIBs, is non-uniformly distributed within the Earth’s crust. As a result, the Andean states have been dubbed the ‘new Middle-East’.4 However, the increasing demand for lithium associated with these new and large-scale applications is expected to skyrocket the price of lithium, affecting reserves as well, as it is not a naturally abundant element. Based on the calculations, overall global Li consumption in 2008 was nearly 21 280 tons; hence, present mineable resources could be sustained for approximately 65 years at most at an average growth rate of 5% per year,2,5 making the implementation of the above-mentioned applications difficult and very costly. Sodium, the fourth most abundant element on earth, has a seemingly unlimited distribution.6 Supplies of sodium-containing precursors are vast, with 23 billion tons of soda ash located in the United States alone. The abundance of resources and the much lower cost of trona (about $135–165 per ton), from which sodium carbonate is produced, compared to lithium carbonate (about $5000 per ton in 2010), provide a compelling rationale for the development of SIBs to be used as alternatives to LIBs.7,8 Because an alternative to lithium is needed to realize large-scale applica- tions, SIBs have attracted considerable research attention in recent years. SIBs were initially studied when the development of LIBs began in the 1970s and 1980s, but due to rapid advances in the development and success of commercial applications of LIBs, SIBs were largely abandoned.9–15 Moreover, during those years, the overall quality of materials, electrolytes and glove View Article Online Yang-Kook Sun Yang-Kook Sun received his PhD degree from Seoul National University, Korea. He was group leader at Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology and con- tributed to the commercialization of the lithium polymer battery. He has worked at the Hanyang University in Korea as a professor since 2000. His research interests are the synthesis of new electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries, Na ion batteries, Li–S batteries, and Li–air batteries. 3530 | Chem. Soc. Rev., 2017, 46, 3529--3614 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2017 Open Access Article. Published on 28 March 2017. Downloaded on 7/1/2019 3:41:21 AM. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Licence.PDF Image | Sodium-ion batteries present and future
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