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Batteries 2022, 8, 108 between potential and capacity directly. At room temperature, there are two obvious re- gions in the potential plot during the first reduction that are related to the adsorption- intercalation mechanism of HC. The sloped region above 0.1 V is often referred to as the 8 of 16 high potential plateau and contains around 100 mA h g−1 capacity due to sodium adsorp- tion on the surfaces of HC nanopores [36–39]. The long, flat plateau region between 0.1 and 0.001 V corresponds to intercalation of sodium into HC layers and displays a 200 mA −1 spec−i1fic capacity [37]. During oxidation these two regions show around 100 mA h g−1 h g specific capacity [37]. During oxidation these two regions show around 100 mA h g −1 and 160 mA h g −1 capacity, respectively. In the second cycle, the high potential region had and 160 mA h g capacity, respectively. In the second cycle, the high potential region had −1 + a 30 mA h g −1 loss in its reduction capacity due to irreversible Na+ adsorption and SEI a 30 mA h g loss in its reduction capacity due to irreversible Na adsorption and SEI + −1 formation.IrreversibleNa+ insertionintotheHClayersalsocauseda10mAhg−1 lower formation. Irreversible Na insertion into the HC layers also caused a 10 mA h g lower reduction capacity in the low potential region. At the 20th cycle, even though the high and reduction capacity in the low potential region. At the 20th cycle, even though the high and −1 −1 low potential plateaus are a further 7 mA h g −1 and 14 mA h g−1 lower, the HC maintained low potential plateaus are a further 7 mA h g and 14 mA h g lower, the HC maintained 90% and 93% of the reduction capacity seen in the 2nd cycle in these two regions. 90% and 93% of the reduction capacity seen in the 2nd cycle in these two regions. −1 −1 FFigiguurree55..VVooltlatgage-ec-acpapacaictiytypploltostsofogfaglavlavnaonsotastaicticycylicnligndgadtatata1t0010m0AmgA gcucrurerrnetnftofroHrCHCatathteth1est, 1st, 2nd, 5th, 10th and 20th cycle at (a◦) 10 °C, (b)◦25 °C (c)◦60 °C and (d) ◦80 °C. 2nd,5th,10thand20thcycleat(a)10 C,(b)25 C(c)60 Cand(d)80 C. ◦ −1 −1 −1 −1 ~~1100cycles. Onnlyly555mmAAh gh ganda4n0dm4A0hmgArhedguctiorendcuacptaiocintycwapeareciotybswerevredoibnstehrevhedighin tahnedhliogwh apnodtenlotiwalpreogteionntisa,lrerespgieocntisv,erlyes, patecthtieve1l0yt,hactytchle.1T0hthe caypcalec.ityThoef tchaepadcistoyrpotfiothne amdseochrpatnioisnmmiseclehsasnaifsfmectiesdleasnsdafpfercotveideasntdheprmovajiodreistythoef tmheajHorCitycaopfatchietyH. TChceaspearicoituys. cTah-e speraicoiutys dcraoppacaistsyodciraotpedaswsoitchiathtedlowitphottheenltoiawl plaoteanutialt pthlaisteteamu paterthatius rtemcapnebraetruerleatceadntboe related to slower Na+ insertion kinetics, slower diffusion in the electrolyte and IR drop at low temperature (i.e., less intercalation before the lower potential limit is reached). Those slower charge transfer kinetics are also manifested in an increasing start in the oxidation potential from 0.03 to 0.15 V after 20 cycles. The CE increases to close to 100% after nine cycles, suggesting that desodiation kinetics are not a limit on capacity. Despite the signs of electrolyte degradation noted above (separator colour change), the sodium half-cell tested at 60 ◦C maintains the highest capacity after 20 cycles. Capacities of 120 and 230 mA h g−1 were associated with the adsorption and intercalation mechanisms FForrttheccelllcyclliingat10 °C, the ffiirst reductionandoxiidattiionccurrvveeisisssimimilialarrtotoththaatt aatt2255◦°C..Thecapacitieshaveasigniffiicantdropinthe2ndcyclleandbeeccoomeesstatabbleleaaftfeterrPDF Image | Temperature Dependence of Hard Carbon Sodium Half-Cells
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