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and bulk storage (Figure 3.1.5). Moreover, 2D heterostructured nanosheets with enlarged interlayer distance can also improve the insertion/extraction of large radius (e.g., Na+ and K+) or multivalent ions (e.g., Mg2+ and Al3+), and they can potentially make the electrodes more tolerant to cycling-induced volume changes. Novel Materials and Architectures for Decoupled Energy and Power: Traditional batteries are made of solid electrode materials and liquid electrolytes. Several different approaches have been explored to overcome the fundamental barriers to high power associated with thick solid electrode materials. An important research direction that could bypass this challenge involves moving from solid electrode materials towards liquid-like electrode materials. abc Graphene i ii iii iv Mg2+ Al3+ Li+ TMO TMC MXene Graphene Figure 3.1.5. (a) Schematic of a stacked 2D heterostructured material. 2D transition metal oxide or chalcogenide (TMO or TMC) materials show high redox activity due to their large surface areas and facile ion intercalation, but their electrical conductivity can be limiting. 2D heterostructures combining the metallic electrical conductivity of graphene or MXenes, along with the high redox activity of TMOs/TMCs, can achieve a synergistic enhancement of mechanical, electrical, and electrochemical properties. Furthermore, by incorporating different 2D nanomaterials, different charge storage mechanisms may be exhibited. For instance, graphene nanosheets are promising electrodes for electrical double layer capacitors (b, left electrode), and the corresponding electrical double layer capacitors storage mechanism can be characterized by the classic rectangular cyclic voltammograms (i in panel c). 2D heterostructures stacked with graphene and other 2D nanosheets (b, right electrode) that exhibit pseudocapacitive and/or ion intercalation properties (shown by the cyclic voltammogram curves in panel c, ii and iii, respectively) can efficiently store energy through intercalation pseudocapacitance, demonstrating ion intercalation/deintercalation peaks with large areas enclosed in the cyclic curves (iv in panel c). 2D heterostructures with large and fast intercalation pseudocapacitance are expected to achieve battery-level energy density combined with the cycle life and power density of electrical double layer capacitors. Images courtesy Guihua Yu, University of Texas, Austin. The redox flow battery represents a promising type of energy storage system to manage energy and power.17 The quantity of energy is determined by the volume of the storage tanks that hold the redox species, and the power capabilities are independently determined by the design of the electrode stack over which the redox species flow (see “Flow Systems” sidebar). Therefore, the energy and power are decoupled in such systems. High energy and power in redox flow batteries critically rely on advanced electrolyte design and electrode-to- system level architectures.54 Although redox flow batteries have been developed and deployed for grid scale energy storage, more extensive implementation is hindered due to insufficient energy density, power density, coulombic efficiency, and cycling stability. To overcome these challenges, advances in electrolyte design, redox species, and flow cell architectures are necessary.55 A few promising research directions are discussed below. Prediction of molecules that exhibit high electrochemical reversibility: Molecules with high redox reversibility are necessary for long cycle life in practical flow batteries.56 Developing new redox molecules and understanding reaction mechanisms require advanced computational modeling and detailed electrochemical characterization.57 Elucidating the stability of reaction intermediates and products with computational methods should provide reasonable predictions regarding the reversibility of molecules, which could then be tested experimentally.56,58 Membranes with controlled ion selectivity: Membranes play key roles in governing the cycle life, coulombic efficiency, and power density of flow-based energy storage systems. Understanding and precisely controlling pore size, membrane charge, and surface chemistry to influence ion selectivity represent promising methods to meet the strict requirements for next generation flow systems. Research integrating organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, and polymer science is needed for breakthrough advances.55,59 Mixed-conducting solutions and suspensions: In addition to conventional flow systems based on high concentration catholyte/anolyte solutions, flow systems can utilize mixed-conducting (ionic and electronic) solutions or even suspensions of solid materials.60,61 Superior energy density is expected for such systems due to high concentrations of redox species, and exceptional power density is enabled by the mixed-conducting electrolyte with carbon additives. Improved understanding of viscosity, fluid mechanics, and aggregation behavior of suspensions is central to the design of new battery architectures. Such systems could broaden the scientific and technological impact of flow-based energy storage devices. NEXT GENERATION ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE PANEL 1 REPORT 87PDF Image | Next Generation Electrical Energy Storage
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