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just like in Bitcoin, each node is free to choose the order of transactions inside a block. After doing so (and executing the transactions), a certain amount of work must be performed to create a valid block. In contrast to Bitcoin, Ethereum follows a different pattern for selecting which blocks get added to the valid blockchain. While in Bitcoin the longest chain of valid blocks is always the rightful blockchain, Ethereum follows a protocol called GHOST8 (in fact a variation thereof). The GHOST protocol allows for stale blocks, blocks that were computed by other nodes but that would otherwise be discarded since others have computed newer blocks, to be integrated into the blockchain, reducing wasted computing power and increasing incentives for slower nodes. It also allows for faster confirmation of transactions: whereas in Bitcoin blocks are usually created every 10 minutes, in Ethereum blocks are created within seconds. Much discussion9 has gone into whether this protocol is an improvement over the much simpler “fastest longest chain” protocol in Bitcoin, however this discussion is out of scope for this handbook. For now this protocol appears to run with success in Ethereum. An important aspect of how smart contracts work in Ethereum is that they have their own address in the blockchain. In other words, contract code is not carried inside each transaction that makes use of it. This would quickly become unwieldy. Instead, a node can create a special transaction that assigns an address to a contract. This transaction can also run code at the moment of creation. After this initial transaction, the contract becomes forever a part of the blockchain and its address never changes. Whenever a node wants to call any of the methods defined by the contract, it can send a message to the address for the contract, specifying data as input and the method that must be called. The contract will run as part of the creation of newer blocks up to the gas limit or completion. Contract methods can return a value or store data. This data is part of the state of the blockchain. 2.2.2.1 State An interesting aspect of contracts being able to store data is how that can be handled in an efficient way. If state is mutated by contracts, and the nature of the blockchain ensures that state is always consistent across all nodes, then all nodes must have access to the whole state stored in the blockchain. Since the size of this storage in unlimited in principle, this raises questions with regards to how to handle this effectively as the network scales. In particular, how can smaller and less powerful nodes make use of the Ethereum network if they can’t store the whole state? How can they perform computations? To solve this, Ethereum makes use of something called Merkle Patricia Trees10. A Merkle Patricia Tree is a special kind of data structure that can store cryptographically authen- ticated data in the form of keys and values. A Merkle Patricia Tree with a certain group of keys and values can only be constructed in a single way. In other words, given the same set of keys and values, two Merkle Patricia Trees constructed independently will result in the same structure bit-by-bit. A special property of Merkle Patricia Trees is that the hash of the root node (the first node in the tree) depends on the hashes of all sub-nodes. This means that any change to the tree results in a completely different root hash value. Changes to a leaf node cause all hashes leading 8 https://www.cryptocompare.com/coins/guides/what- is- the- ghost- protocol- for- ethereum/ 9 https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7553418 10 https://easythereentropy.wordpress.com/2014/06/04/understanding- the- ethereum- trie/ 32PDF Image | Intro to Ethereum and Smart Contracts
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