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Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9372 16 of 27 7 8 9 Cost issue Number of nodes Consensus model This implies the total cost associated with verify- ing a transaction in blockchain. This refers to the total number of nodes available in the blockchain network. Consensus mechanism represents the process of approving/verifying blockchain transactions. [13,50,55,64] [95–97] [6,45,47,49,54,56,57, 59,60,63,71,73,83,84, 90,98–116] It should be mentioned here that public blockchain scalability is not a singular term. It is a combination of various parameters, and these parameters are interdependent. In many papers, every parameter is discussed somehow directly or indirectly to the consen- sus model deployed. For example, transaction throughput, latency, and computational energy are dependent on the efficiency/performance of the consensus model. Block size and storage are also interdependent. Block size can affect transaction throughput and la- tency, which in turn can be indirectly linked to consensus model. A larger block can store more transactions, thus directly raising the throughput, but it also causes an increase in block propagation time. In Bitcoin, the block interval is about 10 min with a block size of around 1 MB, to illustrate the limits on the number of transactions that can be stored in each block. The consensus mechanism is a process in which the nodes in the public blockchains network agree with each other about the ledger that they hold. The consensus protocol is thus the most fundamental and indispensable component in Blockchain. It provides the essential process flow for the nodes to verify and validate every single transaction and hence to append a new block to a blockchain. It follows that a high network bandwidth would be consumed when the whole network updates its chain. For example, Bitcoin uses PoW as its core consensus model, and for the mining process, it requires specialized hard- ware with stable internet connection. Collectively, this is resource-hungry. It may have a high processing time, resulting in thousands of transactions (per second) waiting in the queue to be verified. This constitutes a pressing latency factor in the public blockchain. Consensus mechanism is considered a crucial challenge in public blockchain applications. It is known to cause bottleneck and restrict transaction throughput [116] in the permis- sionless blockchain (Bitcoin and Ethereum) [29]. 7.1. Latency Latency in blockchain is referring to the processing time for a transaction measured starting from getting an input till the transaction is completed at the output [24]. In per- missionless blockchain, thousands of nodes need consensus to verify and process a trans- action. Transactions are buffered in a queue waiting to be verified, thus logically causing increased latency. In public blockchains, every node verifies and stores every single trans- action for upholding data integrity and data security but unfortunately compromises the latency [35,117] . High latency in blockchain, however, may be used to ensure consistency in the decentralized public blockchain networks. 7.2. Number of Nodes Entities connected to blockchain network are considered as nodes. The inter-nodes latency increases when many nodes get connected to the network [19]. The number of transactions increases with the increasing number of nodes, and so, more transactions are getting involved in the consensus process. This is bound to affect the transaction through- put and latency. Additionally, the growing number of nodes leads to increasing compu- tational energy [21]. Nodes in public blockchains care split into two categories: partial node (lightweight nodes) and full nodes. The processing of partial nodes is completely dependent on the full nodes. Although the partial nodes are not needed to store a whole blockchain, the processing workload on public blockchains grows as number of nodes increases. This is of certain to affect the throughput. The involvement with many partici- pants may lead to performance degradation because of the higher number of nodes onPDF Image | Review of Challenges in Blockchain Scalability
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