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Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9372 21 of 27 8. Proof of reputation consensus mechanism In PoR [56] protocol, a node’s reputation is made on the basis of its assets, transac- tional activities, and participation in the consensus process. A leader who possesses the best reputation will be able to generate a new Block. Voting process will be initiated for new block validation. There is another scalable protocol on the similar idea of reputation, known as delegated proof of reputation [99]. The protocol’s novelty is that it replaces coin staking with a reputation-based method. 8.2. Off-Chain Solutions The off-chain blockchain scalability solution is designed to increase the transaction throughput by executing the transaction outside of the main blockchain. Lightening Network In the lightening network, it is possible that in the Bitcoin network two nodes would be able to create an off-chain trading channel, where those two nodes would be able to process the transaction with low latency [129]. There are three main phases in the lighten- ing network, namely, establishing, trading, and closing the channel. Firstly, it is extremely important to open the payment channel with the nodes sharing the payment channel. Af- ter the opening of the channel, some coins need to be placed on the multi-signature ad- dress for sharing with other nodes. In this way, nodes are prevented from scamming with the coins arbitrarily. Opening the channel would be accomplished by an on-chain ex- change, which would charge a transaction fee to the main chain. Now, once the channel is opened, the transaction will be an off-chain transaction. So, those transactions are not supposed to be stored on the main chain, and it may charge 0 waiting time and transac- tional fee. The channel would be closed after the process of payment was completed. The final stage would be to notify all nodes and append this new block to the main chain, which would appear on the on-chain. So, in this way, the multiple transactions could take place off the chain and the complete process would create two transaction records on the main chain [8]. Let us suppose A and B are maintaining a channel and B and C are also maintaining a channel each. This enables A and C to contact each other, which increases the through- put. This technique can reduce transaction costs, wait/standby time, and reduce the load on the main chain. However, as fee for transaction is decreasing or has disappeared, there would be no or less benefit for miners, so their ecosystem may change. Raiden network is another example that has been implemented in Ethereum. It is known as Ethereum ver- sion of Lightening Network [18]]. It follows the same process and protocol for operation as Lightening network except for the transaction details. Its state channels transfer smart contract details as well. 8.3. Other Potential Attempts to Address the Blockchain Scalability Issue Some other potential attempts to address blockchain scalability are briefly presented here: TrustChain [111] is designed for permissionless/public blockchains and the data structure is entirely tamper-proof and used by agents to store their transactional record. It enables the design of a separate immutable chain of temporally organized interactions with other agents. It is inherently in parallel that every agent creates its own genesis block. Concept Superlight [76] is mainly used in public blockchains and seeks to address the problem of scalability. It is not mandatory for all nodes to store the whole blockchain lo- cally for verification of each transaction. So, the nodes in this framework may validate the transaction using their header. Block Summarization [78] decreases the additional storage for transferable transactions. This approach allows resource-constrained lightweight nodes to store blockchain shaped in such a way that transactions can be independently verified to eventually decrease full node dependency. FRChain [100] consensus model isPDF Image | Review of Challenges in Blockchain Scalability
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