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Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9372 22 of 27 mostly utilized in permissioned blockchain. It is immune to multiple nodes and block- chain network failures. For block propagation and block validation, FRChain utilizes mu- tual signing over multicast trees. Fast BFT [64] is a faster and scalable consensus protocol. The inventive idea of this protocol is a message grouping technique that uses hardware- based, protected execution environments (TEEs) and lightweight secret sharing. Satellite chains [96] affect the notion of satellite chains that can run many consensual protocols in private at the same time, thereby significantly increasing the scalability of the system’s premises to meet industrial standards. 9. Conclusions Blockchain has grown rapidly in the last two decades after the immense success of public blockchain networks such as Bitcoin and Ethereum. However, it has not disrupted as many industries as was expected because of the fundamental issue of scalability, which has become a major concern, especially when applying blockchain to the real-world busi- ness environment. As a matter of fact, major crypto currencies are also facing the same scalability problem. As such, public blockchain scalability is fast becoming an active re- search topic in academia and in industries, where many sectors are trying to adopt the blockchain in their practical applications. In this study, we found that scalability is not a singular term. There are a number of factors attached to it, including transaction through- put, number of nodes, storage, block size, high communication, latency, cost, and the ver- ification process. Out of these, transaction throughput is the most discussed factor and is strongly linked to a consensus mechanism. It is found that most of the factors are interde- pendent and are somehow directly or indirectly linked to a consensus mechanism. It is also noticed that the contemporary available consensus models are not efficient enough to address the scalability issue and fail to provide required throughput and latency for industrial applications, specifically for those demanding time mission-critical (or real- time) responses such as IoT. IoT is high on the list of technologies adopting Blockchain. Other than IoT, blockchain seems to be impacting other industries such as energy, finance, resource management, healthcare, education, and agriculture; however, it is yet to achieve desired outcomes due to scalability issues, especially in public blockchain settings. The research community has attempted to address the scalability issue with different tech- niques. In this study, we discussed the major scalability solutions along with their chal- lenges with respect to blockchain technology. It is foreseeable that within the next few years, blockchain will transform a lot of applications and the transformation will be driven by scalability balanced with decentralization and security requirements. In this paper, we have highlighted several potential research open issues such as the huge amount of public blockchain data storage that needs to be considered, huge bandwidth consumption, and consensus approaches aimed at addressing scalability in public blockchain systems. Author Contributions: Manuscript preparation, study concept, and design D.K., L.T.J.; research methodology, design, data analysis, and review and visualization, D.K., M.A.H.; critical compari- son, D.K., L.T.J.; survey deductions, D.K.; validation framework design, D.K., L.T.J, and M.A.H.; proof-reading, editing, and formatting, L.T.J., M.A.H. All authors have read and agreed to the pub- lished version of the manuscript. Funding: This study is conducted in Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) under the Fundamen- tal Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) from the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not Applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not Applicable. Data Availability Statement: Not Applicable. Acknowledgments: The authors extend their deep regards and acknowledgement to Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for provision of resources and materials for the completion of this research work.PDF Image | Review of Challenges in Blockchain Scalability
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