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606 J. Sedlmeir et al.: The Energy Consumption of Blockchain Technology, Bus Inf Syst Eng 62(6):599–608 (2020) 108 106 104 102 100 10−2 Simple server Centralized system Enterprise Blockchain Public Blockchain Non-PoW Public Blockchain PoW Fig. 2 A rough comparison of the order of magnitude of energy consumption per transaction for different architectures. A simple server can operate transactions with very low energy consumption. A typical non-blockchain, centralized system in applications will use a more complex database and backups, thus mildly increasing the energy consumption. A small-scale permissioned blockchain as used in cross-enterprise use-cases has a similar degree of redundancy, but some additional yet limited overhead due to, e.g., PoA consensus and more complex cryptographic operations. A non-PoW permissionless blockchain with a large number of nodes can already exhibit a significantly increased energy consumption due to the high degree of redundancy. However, compared to a major Proof-of-Work block- chain, energy consumption is still negligible illustrates this observation and gives a rough comparison of the energy consumption of different architectures, using selected centralized systems as a baseline. We decided to display the energy per transaction. However, as discussed in Sect. 2, this is not an ideal metric for PoW blockchains but does correctly represent the order of magnitude. We arrived at our estimates in the following way: A simple key-value store such as LevelDB can sustainably operate tens of thousands of transactions per second on office hardware with a power consumption of less than 100 W (own measurements), which yields less than 102 J per transaction. A more complex database, such as CouchDB, with one backup still manages more than 103 transactions per second on the same hardware, resulting in at most 0.1 J per transaction (own measurements). As an example of a small-scale enterprise blockchain, we refer to a Hyperledger Fabric architecture with 10 nodes, each on cloud instances with 32 vCPUs and therefore likely con- suming a few thousand Watts in total. According to Androulaki et al. (2018), such a system can handle around 3000 transactions per second, so we arrive at an order of magnitude of 1 J per transaction. On the other hand, an Ethereum full node on Geth which does not mine consumes approximately 0.1 J for a simple payment transaction, depending on whether or not idle power con- sumption is taken into account (own measurements). This seems low, but in a network of 104 nodes, which is approximately the number of active full nodes in Bitcoin or Ethereum, this amounts to approximately 103 J per trans- action, which is already orders of magnitude more than for the described centralized systems and small-scale enter- prise blockchain. However, it is still many orders of magnitude less than for the current PoW blockchains such as Bitcoin with about 109 J per transaction. All numbers given here should be taken with caution as they are highly dependent on the precise architecture, security measures, type of hardware, and other parameters. They should therefore be regarded a ballpark estimate, and reliable numbers have yet to be established. We suggest this interesting topic for further work, including a more thor- ough investigation of the role of consensus mechanism and the energy efficiency of transactions depending on trans- action type or choice of blockchain implementation. For permissioned blockchains, this might be particularly rele- vant when enterprises have to decide for or against a par- ticular blockchain implementation. 6 Conclusion In this article, we first analyzed the energy consumption of today’s prevailing PoW blockchains, which underly most cryptocurrencies. While their energy consumption is, indeed, massive, particularly when compared to the num- ber of transactions they can operate, we found that they do not pose a large threat to the climate, mainly because the energy consumption of PoW blockchains does not increase substantially when they process more transactions. We also argued that although the energy consumption of non-PoW blockchains and in particular permissioned blockchains which are used in enterprise context is generally consid- erably higher than that of non-blockchain, centralized systems, it is many orders of magnitude lower than that of PoW cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin. We also observed a close interrelationship between security aspects and the choice of consensus mechanism and redundancy charac- teristics, and therefore, energy consumption. Hence, we conclude that further investigation in this direction, which has many similarities to Vitalik Buterin’s ‘‘scalability tri- lemma’’, might help to find the best compromise between performance, security, and energy consumption. Our contribution demonstrates that the energy con- sumption of blockchain technology differs significantly between different design choices. Consequently, it is an important dimension to consider during the conception of a blockchain-based IT solution (Kannengießer et al. 2019). We argued that using blockchain technology with non- PoW consensus – which is the case in an increasing 123 Approximate energy consumption per transaction (J)PDF Image | The Energy Consumption of Blockchain Technology
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