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J. Funct. Biomater. 2022, 13, 27 13 of 36 recombination. Due to their high photothermal effect of semiconducting nanosheets un- der NIR irradiation, they are promising tools in pH/photosensitive drug delivery systems, PTT, PDT and chemotherapy [69]. Excitation at particular wavelengths leads to emissions in some classes of 2DNMs which can be utilized for PLTI that benefits bioimaging and optical-based biosensing. It is reported that emission of 2DNMS can be tuned by trapping defects which makes them favorable toward optoelectronic applications. Some of the 2DNMs also exhibit localized surface plasmon resonance which leads to a useful substrate for high-resolution bioimag- ing and scattering-based biosensing. 4.4. Chemical Properties Ultrahigh surface area to volume of 2DNMs compared with other nanostructures provides extensive surface interactions between 2DNMs and therapeutic, diagnostic and theranostic molecules and therefore, unique opportunities for biomedical applications and nanomedicine. It is reported that surface modifications (e.g., with poly(ethylenegly- col) (PEG)), protection (e.g., with poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP)), encapsulation (e.g., with poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)) and targeting linker functionalization enhances their corresponding biomedical performance such as biocompatibility and target ability [70]. Due to the ultrathin structure, 2DNMs can show rapid response to external stimuli such as pH change which in turn results in controlled release of loaded molecules in desired sites for drug delivery purposes and deep tumor penetration by both extrinsic stimuli (e.g., near-infrared (NIR) light) and intrinsic stimuli (i.e., pH) [59]. Although inherently 2DNMs might not be air or water stable, their physicochemical properties can be easily tuned using surface functionalization [71]. Moreover, versatile tuning of surface chemistry provides a range of selectivity and analysis that determine their use in safe biomedical applications such as attaching to biological markers. The at- tachment of these markers on the surface of the 2DNMs can change their electronic signals which can be used for ultrasensitive detection of these markers [15,16]. The capability of multifunctionalizations of 2DNMs enables tuning of their properties which results in a versatile biomedical and nanomedicine applications. 5. Biomedical Applications of 2D Nanomaterial 5.1. Bioelectronics Due to their specific geometry and unique physicochemical properties such as high conductivity and flexibility, 2D nanomaterials are appropriate choices for many bioelec- tronic applications (e.g., wearable sensors). One of the earliest 2DNMs that has been widely investigated in the field of wearable electronics, is graphene nanosheets. In a recent study by Kwon and co-workers, high-aspect ratio functionalized conductive graphene are produced through exfoliation of graphite in ammonium sulfate solution. The obtained ink with defined concentration was used for printing gel-free wireless flexible electrodes for monitoring muscle activities. The all-printed stretchable electrode prepared through so- called “all printed nanomembrane hybrid electronics” technology (p-NHE), with superior compatibility to human skin was used for real-time electromyogram (EMG) recording. The electrode was attached on the three muscles with highest EMG signals: palmaris lon- gus, brachioradialis, and flexor carpi ulnaris, which produced seven signal clusters by sensing motions of fingers. The NHE wearable electrode detects all finger motions for seven different gestures and accuracy as much as 99% through wireless monitoring of EMG signals via Bluetooth, denoting its ability for smart rehabilitation purposes [72]. Graphene can also be attached to biological interfaces with high conductivity (more than 2.6 S·m−1) and conformity to make tissue-integrated biointerfaces [67]. In this method, graphene oxide- Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogel is first reduced to become conductive reduced graphene oxide (rGO-PVA) before introducing poly (acrylic acid) grafted withPDF Image | Nanomaterials beyond Graphene for Biomedical Applications
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