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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8 3785 physics and thus become more and more difficult to achieve (at higher cost and time investments). Thus this trend necessitates introduction of more radical technological and operational measures. The long leadtime in product development and fleet turnover as well as the high cost associated with radical technological breakthroughs was another barrier. Note that airlines order more fuel-efficient aircraft when fuel costs are high, but the delivery only comes a few (in some cases quite a few) years later, so they are not able to respond immediately by buying new aircraft. They can, however, retire older aircraft, as was seen recently with the retirement of many of the MD-80s in the US when the oil price peaked. Accompanying this trend was the passenger’s willingness to pay higher fares as a result of increased income and the convenience of air travel. 3.2. Sustainability Driver: Environmental Considerations Changing the Scene Growth in the total volume of air transportation has important environmental ramifications associated with climate change and stratospheric ozone reduction on a global scale. On local to regional scales, issues such as noise, decreased air quality (related primarily to ozone production and particulate levels), roadway congestion (related to airport services), and local water quality are recognized as important consequences of air transportation. With the consumption of a dwindling fossil fuel supply, there is more attention than ever before on the emissions that aircraft produce [19]. Aviation fuel burn is responsible for approximately two to three percent of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and aviation it is considered to be a fastest growing, potentially significant source of greenhouse gas emissions [26,27]. Globally, aviation accounts for approximately four to nine percent of the climate change impact of anthropogenic activities. As demand for passenger and cargo air transportation continues to rise, the reduction of aviation’s environmental footprint becomes even more critical [28]. Although modern aircraft are much more eco-friendly than their predecessors, the number of airplanes in operation is growing and reducing jet engine emissions is more important with the sheer volume of air travel predicted for the future. Commercial aviation is increasingly being targeted by legislators for mandatory carbon-trading schemes and limits on aircraft emissions [29]. With global economic downturn and an increased focus on environmental concerns, airlines are scrutinizing every step of their operations for new ways to gain efficiencies and cut their fuel bills. The financial pain of economic downturn and soaring fuel prices are particularly acute for airlines because fuel is their single biggest expense. Eight years ago, 15 percent of airfare went to pay for jet fuel; now, it is 40 percent, according to the Air Transport Association. Many airlines are already implementing measures to cut emissions and make their operations green. Aiming for further improvement, airlines have pledged to increase fuel efficiency by another 25 percent by the year 2020 [30]. The rapid increase in air travel demand, fuel consumption, and associated emissions has given rise to a global dialog to address the potential impact of aviation on climate change. Since 1977, a United Nations’ specialized agency, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has promulgated international emissions and noise standards for aircraft and aircraft emissions through its Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP). ICAO has also developed broader policy guidance on fuel taxation and charging principles. In protecting local air quality in the vicinity of airports, the U.S. first introduced legislation to set domestic regulation standards. ICAO subsequently developedPDF Image | Analysis of Technological Innovation and Environmental Performance Improvement in Aviation Sector
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