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able to increase and improve turbine efficiencies while minimizing thermal damage. These trends helped gas turbines break into the power generation market. Cooling usually involves the circulation of air or steam through hot turbine components. This includes extremely intricate pathways, tunnels, and holes to allow for maximum heat transfer to the cooling fluid. The source of the cooling fluid is often another part of the generation process. For example, air-cooled turbines may receive their cooling fluid directly from the compressor. Combined cycle power plants may use steam for cooling because it is readily available from the steam turbine boiler or heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and the heat transfer and heat capacity coefficients of steam are nearly double those of air.14 In either case, the cooling fluid follows an extremely complicated and carefully calculated path to maximize circulation and heat transfer. The progression of cooling has been critical in gas turbine development. Cooling was originally introduced into military turbojet engines in the early 1960s. The advance followed a relatively common trend in gas turbine technology transfer: new developments in the turbines of military turbojets would become available to civilian aircraft about two or three years later, followed by diffusion to the power generation gas turbine industry after about five years.15 GE and Westinghouse helped to pioneer stationary gas turbine cooling in the mid to late 1960s, beginning with stationary components and then gradually moving to more complex cooling geometries. Cooling techniques were able to advance with improvements in computer codes and modeling. Engineering required models and tools for finite element analysis, heat transfer, and fluid dynamics to be able to design better and more complicated cooling systems. Initially, engineers were only able to use simple two-dimensional modeling techniques for heat transfer calculations. In this sense, they were technologically limited in the same way as material engineers who were unable to perform complex stress distributions in irregular shapes. To the benefit of both material stress and cooling efforts, finite element analysis codes improved during the following decades. For example, Westinghouse turbine engineers switched codes repeatedly, beginning with tools developed in-house, then moving to general modeling application such as Ansys, which was developed in great part by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) efforts to model its own materials and devices. Current versions of Ansys, Pro-Engineer (ProE) and computation fluid dynamics remain an integral part of modern turbine development and allow for much faster advancements.16 As a result, cooling designs have become increasingly intricate and effective. An example of the evolution of cooling technology can be seen in Figure 5, which shows how Westinghouse has improved its 1st row gas turbine blade through the years. 14 Bautista, Paul, “Rise in Gas-Fired Power Generation Tracks Gains in Turbine Efficiency,” Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 94, No. 33, August 12, 1996, p. 45. 15 Allen Hammond, William Metz, Energy and the Future: Power Gas and Combined Cycles, pp. 17-18 16 Interview with Lee McLurin, Westinghouse. 11PDF Image | Energy RD Performance: Gas Turbine Case Study
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