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are water soluble but others are not. Three methods are employed to remove such deposits: 1) manual removal; 2) cracking off deposits by shutting the turbine off and allowing it to cool; and 3) for water soluble deposits, water washing while the turbine is running. An often-overlooked component in the steam power system is the steam (safety) stop valve, which is immediately ahead of the steam turbine and is designed to be able to experience the full temperature and pressure of the steam supply. This safety valve is necessary because if the generator electric load were lost (an occasional occurrence), the turbine would rapidly overspeed and destroy itself. Other accidents are also possible, supporting the need for the turbine stop valve, which may add significant cost to the system. 4.4.5 Fuels Industrial boilers operate on a wide variety of fuels, including wood, coal, natural gas, oils (including residual oil, the leftover material when the valuable distillates have been separated for separate sale), municipal solid waste and sludge. The fuel handling, storage and preparation equipment needed for solid fuels considerably adds to the cost of an installation. Thus, such fuels are used only when a high annual capacity factor is expected of the facility, or when the solid material has to be disposed of to avoid an environmental or space occupancy problem. 4.4.6 System Availability Steam turbines are generally considered to have 99 percent plus availability with longer than one year between shutdowns for maintenance and inspections. This high level of availability applies only to the steam turbine, not to the boiler or HRSG that is supplying the steam. For complete systems, the complexity of the fuel handling, combustion, boiler, and emissions, especially for solid fuels, brings overall availability down below that of reciprocating engines and gas turbines. As shown in Table 4-3, a survey of 16 small steam turbine power systems showed an average availability of 90.6 percent with a range of 72.4-99.8 percent. The best system ran for a period of two years without a forced outage. Table 4-3. Steam Turbine Availability Other Technologies Steam Turbines <25MW Number Sampled 16 Min. Avg. Max. Availability (%) Forced Outage Rate (%) Scheduled Outage Factor (%) Service Factor (%) Mean Time Between Forced Outages (hrs) Source: ICF78 4.5 Emissions and Emissions Control Options 72.37 90.59 0.00 3.12 0.00 6.88 3.37 78.72 120 828 99.82 16.41 27.63 99.65 16,600 Emissions associated with a steam turbine are dependent on the source of the boiler input fuel. Steam turbines can be used with a boiler firing any one or a combination of a large variety of fuel sources, or 78 Distributed Generation Operational Reliability and Availability Database, EEA, Inc. (now part of ICF) for ORNL, 2003. Catalog of CHP Technologies 4–15 Steam TurbinesPDF Image | EPA CHP Technologies Combustion Turbines Section 4
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