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440 Chapter 9 3 mN of thrust at beam voltages of up to 1200 V. The micro-Newton Rf Ion Thruster ( N-RIT) [31] use a low frequency ( 1 MHz) rf discharge scaled down to 2 to 4 cm in diameter to produce precision thrust levels as low as 20 N at beam voltages in excess of 1 kV. There are many additional small research and development programs at universities and in small businesses, but these are too numerous to be covered here. 9.3 Hall Thrusters The most successful and extensive electric propulsion development and application has been by the Russians flying Hall thrusters for station keeping on satellites [32]. Over 140 Hall thrusters have been operated in space since 1971 when the Soviets first flew a pair of Hall thrusters called Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPT) on the Meteor satellite [32]. This name is translated from the Russian literature, but refers to the continuous operation (“stationary”) of the Hall thruster in comparison to the Pulsed-Plasma Thrusters (PPT) that the Russians had previously tested and flown in the 1960s [32]. SPT thrusters for satellite applications have been developed with different sizes characterized by the outside diameter of the plasma discharge slot of 50 to over 140 mm [32]. The performance of four sizes of the SPT thruster manufactured by Fakel in Russia is shown in Table 9-8. The SPT-100 operates nominally at a discharge voltage of 300 V and current of 4.5 A to produce 82 mN of thrust at an Isp of 1600 s and a total efficiency of 50% averaged over the life of the thruster. The different SPT thrusters shown have been tested at discharge voltages of 200 to 500 V and power levels of a few hundred watts up to 5 kW. These Hall thrusters have also been tested on a variety of gases such as argon and krypton, but xenon is the present standard for space applications. A schematic of the Hall thruster was shown in Chapter 7, and a photograph of a Fakel SPT-100 thruster from [33] is shown in Fig. 9-9. The first flight of a Hall thruster on a U.S. spacecraft was the 1998 launch of a D-55 TAL (Thruster with Anode Layer) Hall thruster [34,35] manufactured by TsNIIMASH in Russia on the National Reconnaissance Office’s Space Technology Experiment Satellite (STEX). The STEX mission was intended to develop and demonstrate advanced spacecraft technologies in space, including Hall thrusters. The xenon D-55 TAL thruster nominally operates at 1.4 kW with an Isp of about 1500 s, but due to power limitations on the spacecraft was required to run at a discharge of 300 V and 2.2 A (660 W). The European Space Agency (ESA) has demonstrated the use of commercial Hall thruster technology on the SMART-1 (Small Mission for Advanced Research in Technology) spacecraft in a lunar orbiting mission [36]. APDF Image | Fundamentals of Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters
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