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P Spittle (a) (b) ≈ 115 mm Multipass cooling air leaving the combustion chamber and passing over the high pressure turbine blades, i.e. the turbine entry temperature (TET), has risen by nearly 800 ◦C. To accommodate this advance significant changes have been made to the component’s design, material and structure. Because of the high temperatures involved turbine blades are manufactured from nickel-based alloys. Figure 7 highlights how well nickel alloys maintain their mechanical properties with increasing temperature when compared with the alternatives. This curve takes account of the material’s density, and indicates that even though nickel is practically twice as dense as titanium (about 8.4 g cm−3 — contrary to the requirements to reduce engine weight) it is the only material that retains sufficient integrity at high temperature. Indeed standard titanium alloys must be avoided towards the hot end of the aero-engine, not only because of their diminishing properties, but also because at temperatures in excess of 600 ◦C, and under friction, they can rapidly ignite and burn aggres- sively, covering the rearward stages in molten metal. The turbine blades see the most aggressive conditions within the engine, but as with all components, they must readily deliver efficient performance, whilst incurring minimal overhaul and repair costs. The blades that Rolls-Royce currently manufactures can withstand a tempera- ture of about 1550 ◦ C, rotate at 10 000 rpm, remove 510 PHYSICS EDUCA TION 560 kW each from the gas stream (slightly better than your average Ford Focus) and last up to 5 000 000 flying miles. Figure 8 demonstrates a couple of the technological advances that Rolls-Royce has employed in its successful turbine blade design and material definition, thereby allowing it to employ a TET above the melting point of the alloy (TET > 1500 ◦C, alloy melting point about 1350 ◦C). The key advances have been the manufacture of single-crystal blades, with internal cooling channels, and, latterly, thermal barrier coatings. Cooler air (air at 700 ◦C) is bled off from the compressor and passed through the turbine blades. Small laser-drilled holes in the surface of the blade allow the cooler air to flow over the working surfaces, protecting them from the hot gas stream. In a later development ceramic materials have been deposited onto the blade surfaces, further protecting them from the aggressive environment and allowing yet higher TETs to be achieved. At high temperatures the major component failure mechanism is creep, i.e. over time under high temperatures and loads the blade will deform, lengthen and rupture. The creep mechanisms and elongation to failure are caused by atom migration and diffusion. A key path for this atom movement is along grain boundaries (these are areas of lattice discontinuities and therefore a relative increase in space). Thus, by removing this easy diffusion path November 2003 Figure 8. Gas temperature: (a) 1425 ◦C, (b) >1550 ◦C. Multipass cooling air + thermal barrier coatingPDF Image | Gas turbine technology Rolls Royce
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