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Nearly all of the sources of propulsion for aviation, from steam engines to turbines, depend upon engines that do work on gases. Knowledge of gas behavior, therefore, is essential to understanding how these engines function. Of all the three common states of matter, gases have a unique set of properties. In solids, intermo- lecular forces (the forces between molecules) are strong enough to keep molecules vibrating about fixed positions so that solids have a definite shape and volume. As the temperature is raised, the molecules can gain enough kinetic energy to overcome some of these attractive forces and the substance melts. At this point the liquid molecules have enough attraction to have a definite volume, but not enough to stay in a fixed position. Liquids take the shape of their container. Raise the temperature high enough and the molecules move fast enough to overcome nearly all the remaining intermolecular forces so that the substance becomes a gas. Gases both fill their container and take its shape. In the case of many small molecules like oxygen, meth- ane, or carbon dioxide, the forces between molecules are so small that these substances are already gases at room temperature. Because the motion of these widely spaced gas- eous molecules is random, they collide with each other and with the walls of their containers, creating the force we call pressure. Because gas molecules are so far apart, gases are compressible and readily mix. Unlike solids and liquids, a gas can undergo significant changes in pressure and volume. The mathematical expressions that describe these changes are called the gas laws. Be aware that the laws discussed here apply to what is termed an “ideal gas,” where all interactions between molecules and the volumes of the molecules themselves are ignored. BOYLE’S LAW In 1662, the Irish scientist Sir Robert Boyle pub- lished the results of his experiments with a trapped vol- ume of air in a “J” tube. Boyle added different amounts of mercury to vary the pressure on the trapped air and discovered that the volume of gas varies inversely with the pressure (the temperature remaining constant). If the pressure on a gas is increased by adding more mercury, the volume of the air decreased. This rela- tionship has come to be known as “Boyle’s Law” and states that (Volume)(Pressure) = a where “a” is a proportionality constant specific to each gas. On a molecular level, as the pressure increases the molecules are forced closer together and the space between the gas particles decreases. Thus the volume of the gas decreases. CHARLES’S LAW Jacques Charles was a French experimenter who developed the first hydrogen-filled balloon. In observ- ing gases around 1787, he developed the theory now known as “Charles’s Law.” What Charles had noticed was that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature. If the temperature goes up, the volume goes up. This would be expressed as Volume = b Temperature where b is a proportionality constant specific to each gas. It is important to note that the temperature used must be abso- lute temperature. An absolute tem- perature scale such as the Kelvin scale starts with zero at the cold- est temperature possible, which is Gas Laws Solid Holds shape Fixed volume Liquid Shape of container Free surface Fixed volume Gas Shape of container Volume of container Three states of matter. Pushing the Envelope: A NASA Guide to Engines 27 CHEMISTRYPDF Image | NASA Guide to Engines
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