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components and structures decreasing the weight per unit air- flow. Higher combustion-initiation temperatures (higher pressure ratios in simple-cycle engines) and improved component efficien- cies decrease the specific fuel consumption—the higher tempera- tures by increasing the theoretical efficiency and component effi- ciencies by achieving actual performance closer to the theoretical maximum. However, Leland Coons saw the benefit of IHPTET primarily in the novel way it organized science and technology research: The IHPTET program brought several major things to the table. They include a broad set of agreed upon revolutionary propulsion system goals, a highly integrated and disciplined government and industry technology planning and review process, and a very inte- grated and disciplined resource commitment. The IHPTET goals brought unification of a vision for the future. In fact, IHPTET be- came so ingrained at PW [Pratt and Whitney], it was accepted as a core part of the overall technology development plan for all of PW. The program was actively supported by the executive team managing PW. Long range IR&D commitments were made and in general were more firm than in the past as the management team was familiar with how the money was being invested as opposed to the old days where there was a feeling of the money going into a black hole of sorts. The recognition of IHPTET by the manage- ment team allowed changes in personnel at several levels without the plan being put in jeopardy. According to Robert Henderson, IHPTET requires technologies to have a transition plan before receiving support, with a user, such as the U.S. Air Force Systems Program Office, signing off to in- corporate the particular technology once it has been demonstrated to IHPTET requirements. The user connection protects the technol- ogy development effort, whereas buy-in from the field activity and the engine contractor ensures eventual application. For example, the F119 relies on turbine cooling technologies developed under ATEGG and JTDE. The 15 year commitment to IHPTET was a major step for both the government and the engine companies with respect to programs and funding stability. Further details on the origins of IHPTET and the personalities involved are in Chap. 19 of Ref. 3. The financially stable, multiyear nature of the program was essential to its success. Other critical elements were the early definition of key technologies, a division of responsibility among the participants, and allocation of resources to carry out the program. For many years, industry contributed roughly half of IHPTET’s overall budget. Richard Hill told us, “A well planned program has the advantage of knowing where it will go even in times of budgetary constraint; whereas other programs which repeatedly redo their plans to fit changing (usually shrinking) budgets will be reactive in nature, and hence at a disadvantage.” Management Culture in the Turbine Engine Community The success of U.S. turbine engine research programs derived in large part from the cooperative interaction between various techni- cal and management personnel in government and industry, which allowed problems and solutions to be communicated readily. These relationships differed from more conventional government acquisi- tion programs. The distinctive nature was partly due to the longevity of technical personnel in both government and industry: In many cases, careers were measured in decades, not years.7 One benefit of long job retention was the long-term working part- nerships and relationships with counterparts in each community. Relationships based on trust between government managers and industrial personnel enabled them to keep each other informed of progress, work out problems, and encourage competitive solutions and activities. At the same time, the companies trusted that their trade secrets would be kept safe by government researchers. Trust enabled informal ground rules that both sides would not pursue avenues of inquiry or actions that were legally open to them, but which might undermine the established relationships. Long-term relationships between government managers in the different mili- tary services also helped to ensure that the government had a united position when negotiating matters with industry. This was key to resolving disputes that did arise. Another attribute of the IHPTET organization was the high tech- nical competence within government management. Often this re- sulted from managers having prior experience as working scientists or engineers. Albert Martino noted that U.S. Air Force program management tended to have more laboratory orientation, whereas the Navy emphasized experience in the fleet and experience deal- ing with field problems. Both organizations agreed that familiarity and training in engines was needed to manage research programs successfully. A level of technical competence was also required at upper levels in the Pentagon. There, a strong advocate of the pro- grams could not only provide cover for the research programs at the laboratory level, but could also challenge the field management personnel to work outside of their comfort zones, according to Dean Gissendanner. A downside to the deep relationships such as those in the tur- bine engine community is the possibility that new ideas or concepts perceived as generated outside a community may not get a full hearing or impartial evaluation. Another risk is that close relation- ships can prevent levels of technical oversight and skepticism that a more adversarial culture might generate. In this case study, however, no mention was made of the rejection of new propulsion concepts because they were from outside the community, and close relation- ships have not precluded vigorous technical exchange and disputes. Steering committees, with government and industry participation and input, are essential elements of the IHPTET model. Richard Weiss recalled that the IHPTET steering committee concept drew on successful experiences in the JANNAF Interagency Propulsion Committee. Although industry members cannot have veto or other powers over federal acquisition procedures, on a purely technical ba- sis steering committees provide a nonproprietary informational role in the decision making. A side effect is that the participating services must act in concert on policy matters, to avoid being played against each other by the companies. As long as the steering group encour- ages ongoing technical exchange without getting bogged down in ways that hamper the research work through endless bureaucratic box-checking, they can provide a useful mechanism for building the types of relationships mentioned elsewhere. Such a system should allow sufficient freedom to support research managers in their ex- tensive, ongoing planning processes. According to William Heiser, the IHPTET program incorporates continuous planning activities, which can be tedious and time consuming. However, if the contrac- tors are doing the bulk of the heavy lifting, then it behooves the government managers to use their skills in making sure the work is responsive to the strategic plans. In the technology planning pro- cess, it is impossible to overestimate the work involved, but also impossible to overestimate the benefits that come with it. These stable relationships and the resulting levels of trust and teamwork may not be possible in a current day government envi- ronment that institutes short-term management assignments and suf- fers from unstable funding. Today’s challenge, according to James Williams, is that “complex systems will continue to require intuitive rather than analytical judgment; thus not having a sense of institu- tional memory for development of such systems puts the programs at risk.” Analysis: Radical Innovation in the Engine Community The 1960s were glory days of aircraft engine development. The decade opened with the variable geometry J79 and high-altitude J75 entering service. The two most ambitious gas turbine engines to date, the Mach 3 J58 and J93, were developed early in the decade. Pratt and Whitney produced the first military turbofan, the TF30, and GE built the first (and to date, highest bypass) subsonic turbofan, the TF39. Three GE-1 demonstrators in the 1960s developed the core component designs for the F101, F110, F118, F404, CFM56, and by way of the TF39, the CF6 engines, essentially GE’s entire large engine product line 30 years later (Fig. 2). Major technology accomplishments (Fig. 4) delivered to produc- tion in the period from 1960 to 1975 include, according to Thomas Donohue, 1) titanium compressor airfoils and disks; 2) nickel alloy HONG AND COLLOPY 773PDF Image | Technology for Jet Engines: A Case Study in Science and Technology Development
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