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high temperature composites for aircraft and ramjet engines at the expense of exploring and developing improvements in monolithic alloys. (Benjamin Koff) R. Standahar told us that in the 1960–1970s Pentagon, propul- sion research staff had considerably more discretionary power to make decisions on what research programs to fund. According to D. Gissendanner, this discretion went away by the mid-1980s. As noted, a shortfall in turbine engine research during this period was inability to abandon lines of research that did not deliver results to products or to associated demonstrator programs. D. Edmunds made the following suggestion: An overarching group can be established to sort out which re- search projects go forward and which should be stopped. Compo- nent technology groups may not be able to do this effectively on their own. An overarching group may be assigned to each com- ponent, perhaps not a permanent group, but ad hoc. That is, a permanent management structure, but an ad hoc technical review group. The key role of the review group is vetting technologies so that money can be focused on worthwhile ideas. A perspective on the materials side was given by James Williams. He noted that, in many research programs, continuous, incremental improvement needs to be pursued rather than counting only on radi- cal innovation. An essential step is prioritizing the technologies that are critical to achieving a particular aircraft program success and pursuing those: In other words, start worrying sooner rather than later about technology to manufacture those components needed to build the desired systems. Designs should not get ahead of the neces- sary technologies or the implementation of technology. Otherwise, it is easy to lose momentum and group cohesion when disruptions occur due to lack of planning. One of the failures of the IHPTET program (from J. Williams’s perspective, in sharp contrast to the opinions cited earlier) has been the delayed investment in the ma- terials needed to realize program goals, due to a number of reasons such as a lack of resources or inadequate time to address unforeseen problems. Current business practices, which are moving toward en- gine leasing rather than purchases (especially in the commercial sector, which is now larger than the military) make questions of durability even more important to industry, which tends to further suppress any drive toward using innovative materials that have not undergone rigorous testing and manufacturing certification. General Applicability of IHPTET Research Management Methods Gas turbine engines rank among the most useful and most tech- nically impressive artifacts of our age. The science and technology programs of the last half century have been remarkably successful, both for the revolutionary advances before 1975 and the steady stream of incremental improvements in cycle temperatures and thrust to weight ratio after 1975. The sustained flow of technology improvements in the United States since 1975 is largely due to the methods used in the ATEGG and JTDE programs, culminating in the disciplined IHPTET process, plus NASA programs such as Energy Efficient Engine. Can the IHPTET management processes be effec- tive in other product domains? Leland Coons, who managed technol- ogy programs under the IHPTET system for many years, answers: The propulsion technology focus has probably not changed much over the years. The quest has typically been for improved performance and that usually means higher turbine temperature (for higher specific thrust) and better materials for lower specific weight. Aerodynamic technology was oriented towards higher ef- ficiency and reduced number of stages (for reduced weight and cost). This was true for fans, compressors, and high and low pres- sure turbines. Combustors and turbines had to manage the higher temperatures with reduced cooling air. What IHPTET drove was an accelerated pace in achieving the higher levels of performance. It also brought an integrated government and industry team to at- tack the aggressive goals and a disciplined process for planning and program accountability. IHPTET, I believe created a new cul- ture for effective development of propulsion technology at a pace that provides propulsion system capability that has helped the US develop and deploy superior weapon systems. I believe that IHPTET is a benchmark in best practices for re- search planning and execution and could serve as a model for other research efforts within the government. As in all successful efforts, it needs a high level champion with a passion to drive the process. Currently, the Vehicle Systems Office at NASA Headquarters is exploring the application of the IHPTET process to its own program structure. IHPTET has also been consciously applied to research in rocket propulsion. The Integrated, High Payoff Rocket Propul- sion Technology (IHPRPT) program reorganized itself in the 1990s along parallel lines to IHPTET, including the creation of a steer- ing committee. The quantitative, goal-oriented approach that marks IHPTET, when applied to the rocket programs under IHPRPT, came up with mixed results, according to Richard Weiss. There are sev- eral reasons, which contrast rocket propulsion against the airbreath- ing propulsion industry: 1) lack of a truly commercial industry for rocket propulsion, 2) less settled technology options available until the systems development stage, and 3) less overall government sup- port at a steady funding rate through the military or civilian (NASA) agencies. In addition, the rocket community requires a determined effort on the part of the government to set aside funds to support more fundamental, radical ideas. Industry will not do this due to lack of IR&D funds and any sort of commercial market from which to recoup research spending. Weiss, retired director of the Phillips Laboratory, recommends that some fixed percentage of the research budget, such as 10%, be set aside for this purpose. It is not clear that the structured IHPTET approach can be effec- tive in blue sky, first principles’ basic research or research at the architecture and large platforms level of planning, where radical designs are the essence of research. D. Edmunds, a consumer of IHPTET technology, made the fol- lowing comment: The period from 1940 to 1970 or 1975 was ripe for new tech- nologies in aircraft engine development. After 1975, the products have approached maturity and there have been correspondingly fewer inventions. IHPTET began in the early 1980’s and is a pro- gram perhaps geared best to incremental technology development for a mature product. . . . One reason research in this period was so successful is that there was an architecture established for the en- gines (essentially the architecture of the TF30 and TF39). This al- lowed science research at the component level, where phenomena could be understood at a detailed level. In the 1940’s and some- what in the 1950’s, a variety of architectures was investigated, so that it was hard to focus much attention on one component of one configuration. Conclusions From the observations of technology managers active in tur- bine engine development during the period concerned, we observe that the research management structure had the following general characteristics. 1) Joint interservice programs (for example, the U.S. Air Force and Navy in the JTDE, and the three services plus NASA in IHPTET) allowed work toward common problems but with separate, defend- able budgets within each organization. 2) Technically competent government personnel in program man- agement challenged field personnel (government and industry) to work outside of their comfort zone. 3) Stability of senior management in the laboratories and the Pentagon, in some cases for more than 20 years, enabled deep un- derstanding of issues associated with particular technologies and consistent direction and support of technologies from concept to fielding. 4) Stable, multiyear funding allowed the establishment of long- term research teams in government and industry who could become deeply acquainted with technologies and challenges. 5) As management inevitably changed, the succession of leader- ship was closely attended so that the basic approach and philosophy remained stable. 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