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Materials 2020, 13, 4712 6 of 23 3. Production of Sulfur Natural reserves of sulfur (including sulfur ores of sedimentary and magmatic genesis) amount to more than 5 billion tons. Of these, explored deposits of native sulfur have a capacity of about 1.2 billion tons. The mining industry of sulfur is divided into two sectors: specialized and attendant. The specialized part is mainly aimed at the extraction of sulfur from the deposits of this raw material (one tenth of the total sulfur production on the planet). The specialized sulfur native ores are in Iraq (about 335 million tons) [48], the United States (200 million tons) [49], Chile (100 million tons) [50] and Mexico (100 million tons) [51]. Large deposits have also been explored in Poland [52], Ukraine [53], Russia [54], Turkmenistan [55] and on the Japanese islands [56]. In the attendant sector, sulfur is produced as by-products in the process of hydrogen sulfide processing; the level of sulfur production depends not only on the volumes of its consumption but on the amount of purified oil and natural gas. Commercial production of sulfur has three types such as lump, granulated and liquid. Sulfur production technologies includes extraction and refining of natural elemental sulfur [57], obtaining sulfur from pyrites [58], sulfur production from H2S [59,60] and sulfur production from SO2 [61]. 3.1. Claus Process As every source of sulfur (especially man-made) produces H2S which can be converted into sulfur by several processes worldwide. One of such methods is known is Claus (named after its inventor Carl Friedrich Claus) [30,62]. The overall efficiency of the Claus process is between 94–97% [63,64]. The traditional Claus process (shown in Figure 4) is carried out as follows [64] Figure 4. Claus process for sulfur production (adapted from Reference [64]). H2S and the oxygen (O2) available in the air are reacted to form SO2 The above reaction produces a lot of heat while H2S and SO2 reacts with each other to produce 3/2 S2. This reaction is high reversible exothermic reaction which lessens equilibrium transformation up to 75%. Effluent gas produced in reaction furnace is transferred to waste heat boiler (WHB) to reobtain heat and form steam (high-pressure). The S2 present in effluent gas changes to hexasulfur (S6) and octasulfur (S8) WHB having effluent gas is transferred to a condenser for condensing sulfur. Condensed effluent gas is heated and transferred to 2–3 catalytic reactors. Each catalytic reaction stage produces sulfur due to cooling converted effluent gas in condenser. 3.2. Frasch Mining Dr. Herman Frasch in 1984 invented a process to recover sulfur by melting it underground and then pumping it upward to the surface [1]. This process was first used commercially at Sulfur Mine, LA in 1903 [65]. Frasch mining (as shown in Figure 5) usually proceeds in the following steps [37]:PDF Image | Critical Review on the Properties and Applications of Sulfur-Based Concrete
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