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Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Polymers 2021, 13, 1071 4 of 21 license (MDPI, Basel, Switzerland). license (MDPI, Basel, Switzerland). (a) Figure 1. (a) A basic setup of needle-based and (b) needleless electrospinning methods. The electrospinning parameters, such as voltage, feed rate, electrode-type, and dis- tance between electrode and collector, significantly affect the properties of the resulting electrospun nanofibers [95]. The electrospinning parameters play a decisive role in the resulting nanofibers. Depending on the change of the parameters, the defined nanofibers with desired pro(pa)erties can be produced [96,97]. (b) Figure 1. (a) A basic setup of needle-based and (b) needleless electrospinning methods. Figure 1. (a) A basic setup of needle-based and (b) needleless electrospinning methods. 3.2. Stabilization and Carbonization of Nanofibers 3.2. Stabilization and Carbonization of Nanofibers minimizes the volatilization of elemental carbon to maximize the final carbon yield [100]. 3.2. Stabilization and Carbonization of Nanofibers thermal processes exert a great influence on the fiber morphology and the resulting prop- Both thermal processes exert a great influence on the fiber morphology and the resulting ertipersVo[pa1er0riot1iu,e1s0[b21i]0o.1bF,1ai0gs2eu]dr. eFani2gdudrseypn2itcdhteseptihcteps cothalyerbmcoaernrbsiozaneridezemudsyemdcyeacliesulpimurme/Pc/uAPrAsNoNrnsnafanonoroftfiihbeepr rceopmaprpaootsisiotient.e. of CNFs by electrospinning followed by thermal heat treatment process involves oxida- tive stabilization and subsequent carbonization for the production of carbon fibers [98,99]. Oxidative stabilization is used because it prevents melting or fusing of the fibers and thus increases the final elemental carbon content. In other words, the stabilization process min- imizes the volatilization of elemental carbon to maximize the final carbon yield [100]. Both thermal processes exert a great influence on the fiber morphology and the resulting prop- erties [101,102]. Figure 2 depicts the carbonized mycelium/PAN nanofiber composite. Figure 2. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images of oyster mushroom mycelium on polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Figure 2. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images of oyster mushroom mycelium on polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofiber mats (the latter not visible) (a) after stabilization of the whole composite for 1 h at 280 ◦C; (b) after carbonization nanofiber mats (the latter not visible) (a) after stabilization of the whole composite for 1 h at 280 °C; (b) after carbonization for 1 h at 500 ◦C of the whole composite. Scale bars indicate 20 μm. Reproduced from [19], published under a CC BY 4.0 for 1 h at 500 °C of the whole composite. Scale bars indicate 20 μm. Reproduced from [19], published under a CC BY 4.0 The dimensional change of the nanofiber mats takes place when the temperature is (b) 4 of 20 Various biobased and synthetic polymers are used as precursors for the preparation The electrospinning parameters, such as voltage, feed rate, electrode-type, and dis- Various biobased and synthetic polymers are used as precursors for the preparation of CNFs by electrospinning followed by thermal heat treatment process involves oxida- tance between electrode and collector, significantly affect the properties of the resulting of CNFs by electrospinning followed by thermal heat treatment process involves oxidative etilvecetsrotasbpiulinzantaionnofaibnedrsu[9b5s]e.qTuhenetlceacrtrbosnpiiznantinogn pfoarathmeepterrosdpulcatyioandoefcciasirvbeonrofliebeinrst[h9e8,99]. stabilization and subsequent carbonization for the production of carbon fibers [98,99]. rOexsuidltaintigvenasntaobfibliezrast.iDonepisenudsiendgboencathuesechitanpgrevoefntthsempaerltaimngetoersf,utshiengdeoffintehde nfiabneorfsibaenrds thus Oxidative stabilization is used because it prevents melting or fusing of the fibers and thus winictrhedaseesisrethdepfrionpael retliems ceantablecparobdouncceodn[t9e6n,9t.7I]n. other words, the stabilization process min- increases the final elemental carbon content. In other words, the stabilization process imizes the volatilization of elemental carbon to maximize the final carbon yield [100]. Both The dimensional change of the nanofiber mats takes place when the temperature is increased during the stabilization process. As the temperature increases, the dimensions increased during the stabilization process. As the temperature increases, the dimensions Figure 2. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images of oyster mushroom mycelium on polyacrylonitrile (PAN) of the samples will decrease. These changes happen on the molecular level due to the nanofibermats(thelatternotfvitshibeles)a(ma)pafltesrswtaiblillizdaetciorneaosfeth.eTwhheoslecohmanpogseistehfoarp1pheant2o8n0°tCh;e(bm)aoftlerccualrabronleizvaetilodnue to the prevailing processes during the isothermal treatment. During the stabilization process for 1 h at 500 °C of the whole composite. Scale bars indicate 20 μm. Reproduced from [19], published under a CC BY 4.0 prevailing processes during the isothermal treatment. During the stabilization process in license (MDPI, Basel, Switzerland). in air, various processes, such as cyclization, dehydrogenation, oxidation, aromatization, and crosslinking reactions, take place, leading to an aromatic ladder structure [103,104]. These processes reduce the size of the sample area and the weight of the sample. The The dimensional change of the nanofiber mats takes place when the temperature is stabilization process plays an important role in the properties of the resulting CNFs and increased during the stabilization process. As the temperature increases, the dimensions should be carried out in a controlled way. After stabilization, carbonization is performed, of the samples will decrease. These changes happen on the molecular level due to the prevailing processes during the isothermal treatment. 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