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Polymers 2021, 13, 1071 air, various processes, such as cyclization, dehydrogenation, oxidation, aromatization, and crosslinking reactions, take place, leading to an aromatic ladder structure [103,104]. stabilization process plays an important role in the properties of the resulting CNFs and should be carried out in a controlled way. After stabilization, carbonization is performed, These processes reduce the size of the sample area and the weight of the sample. The morphological properties of the carbon nanofiber depending on the treatment temperature. tuFrieg.uFreig3usrheo3wshthoewcshtahnegecshatntghesmaotlethcuelamrolelveceulalanrdltehveetlransdfotrhmeatrioansoffoPrAmNatnioanofifbPerAN namnaotfsibinetromcartbsointnoacnaorfibboenrsn. anofibers. 5 of 20 which is usually carried out in a nitrogen atmosphere and leads to different chemical and which is usually carried out in a nitrogen atmosphere and leads to different chemical and morphological properties of the carbon nanofiber depending on the treatment tempera- FigFuirgeu3re. T3.hTeheeffefcftecotfotfhtehremrmalatlrteraetamtmenenttininPPANssttructure change((prroppoosseeddbbyyIbIbuuppototoeteatla.)l.R)eRperpinrtinedtewdiwthitpherpmerismsiosnsion from [105]. Copyright (2018) by Elsevier Publishing. from [105]. Copyright (2018) by Elsevier Publishing. The carbonization process typically occurs under inert gases, such as argon or nitrogen, The carbonization process typically occurs under inert gases, such as argon or nitro- at temperatures ranging from 500 ◦C to 1.200 ◦C (see Table 1). The morphological modifica- gen, at temperatures ranging from 500 °C to 1.200 °C (see Table 1). The morphological tion of the resulting CNFs can be achieved by using different techniques. The polymers can modification of the resulting CNFs can be achieved by using different techniques. The be completely removed from the fibers during thermal treatment by pyrolysis [106,107] or polymers can be completely removed from the fibers during thermal treatment by pyrol- by adding ingredients, such as phosphorus [108], nitrogen [109] or particles [110] to modify ysis [106,107] or by adding ingredients, such as phosphorus [108], nitrogen [109] or electrical or mechanical properties. By using blends, carbon nanofibers with adjustable fiber morphology can be produced. Table 1. Isothermal treatment conditions of biomass-derived electrospun carbon nanofibers. Table 1. Isothermal treatment conditions of biomass-derived electrospun carbon nanofibers. particles [110] to modify electrical or mechanical properties. By using blends, carbon nanofibers with adjustable fiber morphology can be produced. Precursors Heat Treatment Reference Precursors Heat Treatment ◦ ◦ Reference Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/gelatine −1 −1 ◦ −1 min and 4 K min , 1 h at the final temperature. in N2, 1 h at the [14] [14] [19] [19] [111] [111] [112] [112] [113] [113] [72] Stabilization: between 240 Stabilization: between 240 °C and 300 °C, heating rates between 0.5 K C and 300 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/gelatine 0.5 K min−1 and 4 K min−1, 1 h at the final temperature. Carbonization: at 800 C, heating rate of 10 K min final temperature. −1 Carbonization: at 800 °C, heating rate of 10 K min in N2, 1 h at the final temperatureS.tabilization: at 280 ◦C for 1 h, heating rate of 1 K min−1, 1 h at the final C, heating rates between temperature. −1 PAN/mycelium Stabilization: at 280 °C for 1 h, heating rate of 1 K min , 1 h at the final PAN/mycelium PAN/konjac glucomannan (KGM) Amorphophallus konjac the final temperature. Mg(NO3)2. 6H2O/lignin Lignin 24 h. Carbonization: at 800 ◦C for 1 h, heating rate of 3 K min−1 in N2. Stabilization: at 200 ◦C, heating rate of 0.08 K min−1, 48 h at the final −1 3 2 2 Stabilization: (2) Temperature was increased from 150 to 350 , heating rate of 1 K min−1, 4 h. (1) Temperature was increased from 25 to 150 °C, heating rate of 1 K min Carbonization: at 500 ◦C for 1 h, heating rate of 10 K min−1 in N2, 1 h at temperature. Carbonization: at 500 °C for 1 h, heating rate of 10 K min−1 in N2, 1 h at the Stabilization: at 280 ◦C for 1 h, heating rate of 1 K min−1, 1 h at the final final temperature. PAN/konjac glucomannan (KGM) temperature. AmorphophalluskonSjatacbilizatioCna:rabton2i8z0at°iConf:oart510h0,Chefaorti1nhg,rhaetaetinogfr1atKeomf1in0K,m1ihnatitnhNef,in1ahlat the final temperature. temperature. Stabilization: −1 ◦ −1−1 2 Carbonization: at 500 °C for 1 h, heating rate of 10 K min (1) Temperature was increased from 25 to 150 ◦C, heating rate of final temperature.−1 Mg(NO ) . 6H O/lignin 1Kmin ,24h. −1 Carbonization: at 800 °C for 1 h, heating rate of 3 K min−1 in N2. C, in N2, heating rate of 10 K min Stabilization: at 200 °C, heati◦ng rate of 0.08 K min−1, 4−81h at the final tem- , 2 h at the Stabilization: at 220 C, heating rate of 0.4 K min , 12 h at the final final temperature. ◦ in N2, 1 h at the −1 , (2) Temperature was increased from 150 to 350°, heating rate of 1 K min , 4 h. temperature. ◦ Carbonization: at 900 Lignin perature. temperature. Cellulose acetate/lignin Carbonization: 600 ◦C, heating rate of 4.0 K min−1 in N2, 2 h at the final temperature.PDF Image | Electrospun Carbon Nanofibers from Biomass and Biomass Blends
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