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As shown in Table 1, carbon nanofibers are largely produced from lignin and cellu- lose-containing biomass. Carbon nanofibers prepared from PAN/fungal mycelium or PAN/gelatine are still a novelty. Lignin and cellulosic materials have been known for a long time and have been intensively researched, and therefore, several studies are availa- Polymers 2021, 13, 1071 ble, which deal with these materials. 7 of 20 4. Application of Carbon Nanofibers Electrospinning is one of the most productive methods for the preparation of carbon 4. Application of Carbon Nanofibers nanofiber using different precursor solutions. Recently, many authors have intensively Electrospinning is one of the most productive methods for the preparation of carbon studied the production of carbon nanofibers by electrospinning from biomass and poly- nanofiber using different precursor solutions. Recently, many authors have intensively mers with or without additives, such as various metals, particles, acids, alkyls, to increase studied the production of carbon nanofibers by electrospinning from biomass and polymers the importance of their application in industry. The importance of carbon nanofibers is with or without additives, such as various metals, particles, acids, alkyls, to increase based on their porous structure, high specific surface area, high conductivity, and thermal the importance of their application in industry. The importance of carbon nanofibers stability.Aisllbtahsedseopnrtohpeeirtpieosromusaksetruthcteurdee,vheiglohpsmpecnitficofsuthrfeacperearpear,ahtiognhcmoentdhuocdtisviaty,biagnd challengerthfoermreaclestnatbwiliotyr.kAs.llRtheecseenptlryo,ptehretiemsamnaukfeacthtuerdinevgeolofpcmarebnotnofnthaneopfriebpearrsathioanssmigenthiof-ds a big challenger for recent works. Recently, the manufacturing of carbon nanofibers has icantly improved diverse applications due to their physical and chemical properties, such significantly improved diverse applications due to their physical and chemical properties, as high porosity and large specific surface area, numerous active sites, good catalytic such as high porosity and large specific surface area, numerous active sites, good catalytic properties, high conductivity, good temperature stability, and low-cost, which have been properties, high conductivity, good temperature stability, and low-cost, which have been a challenge for many industrial applications (Figure 4), such as energy storage (fuel cells, a challenge for many industrial applications (Figure 4), such as energy storage (fuel cells, electrochemical batteries and supercapacitors) [120–122], environment science [123,124], electrochemical batteries and supercapacitors) [120–122], environment science [123,124], tissue engineering [125], optical sensors [126], cancer diagnosis [127]. tissue engineering [125], optical sensors [126], cancer diagnosis [127]. Energie Wastewater treatment storage Biomass-derived carbon nanofibers Fuel cells Super capacitors CO 2 capture Cancer diagnostic Tissue engineering Figure 4. The different applications of biomass-derived carbon nanofibers. Figure 4. The different applications of biomass-derived carbon nanofibers. 4.1. For Energy Storage 4.1. For Energy Storage 4.1.1. Fuel Cells 4.1.1. Fuel Cells Fuel cells function as batteries, which are electrochemical cells applied to convert chemical energy into electricity through two electrodes (cathode–anode) by redox reactions. Fuel cells function as batteries, which are electrochemical cells applied to convert The application of rechargeable ion batteries and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells chemical energy into electricity through two electrodes (cathode–anode) by redox reac- has aroused interest in analytical models for calculating the transverse permeability of the tions. The application of rechargeable ion batteries and polymer electrolyte membrane gas diffusion layer in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells [128] and effective electrolyte fuel cells has aroused interest in analytical models for calculating the transverse permea- diffusivity considering the electrokinetic effects and microstructure parameters of porous bility of the gas diffusion layer in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells [128] and effective media using the using the fractal theory of porous media [129]. Fuel, such as hydrogen, is electrolytesudpifpfluiesdivtiotythceoansoide,raingd theaeirleisctsruopkpinliedtictoetfhfectasthaonde.mPricersoenstrlyu,cmtuorset cpoamrmamerec-ial ters of porcoautaslymstesduisaedusfoinr gfutehl eceullsinarge tchatealfyrsatcstdaloptheedowryithofmpeotarloaussPmt deudeiato[t1h2e9ir].hFiguhele,ffisucacchity and stability. However, the high cost of this metal decreases the utilization of this type of fuel cell. Recently many investigations used carbon nanofiber for fuel cells due to their large surface area, higher conductivity, and stability. Among them, Chung et al. used CNFs pre- pared by electrospinning of PAN following by heat treatment of stabilization, carbonization and graphitization at different temperatures for Pt/C cathode to improve water manage- ment in fuel cells [79]. They concluded that the enhanced air transport in the water-freePDF Image | Electrospun Carbon Nanofibers from Biomass and Biomass Blends
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