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Polymers 2021, 13, 1071 12 of 20 investigated that carbon nanofibers have strong mechanical properties capable of surviving without affecting mesenchymal stem cells for tissue engineering of the knee meniscus [170]. Samadian et al. and Patel et al. have found that carbon nanofibers are promising platforms with a nanoscale surface area that are helpful for tissue healing and bone regeneration process through anti-inflammation, pro-angiogenesis and stem cell stimulation [169,171]. The research group of Serafin et al. has presented that the electrically conductive properties of carbon nanofibers can be used in cardiac or neural tissue engineering applications [172]. In addition, carbon nanofiber composites have special properties, such as large specific area, high porosity, good biodegradability, cytocompatibility and conductivity, etc., making them ideal candidates in the field of tissue engineering and biological medicine [173–176]. In addition, there is a wide range of further carbon nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon nano-onions (CNOs), graphene, which have attracted a lot of attention recently due to the promising industrial application areas. Onion-like quasi-spherical CNPs (OCNPs) with hollow cage-like concentric graphene shells have been known since 1992 but are still under-researched compared to other allotropic forms of nanocarbons, such as carbon nanotubes, carbon fibers, fullerenes, graphene, and carbon dots. CNOs are a niche product that has not been explored as much as other carbon nanostructures and offer many advantages, unlike other carbon nanostructures. They exhibit lower toxicity, have one of the exceptional biocompatibilities and are, therefore, of particular interest for medical and biotechnological applications, such as imaging, drug delivery, tissue engineering, sensing and as [177–179]. Excellent electrochemical performance is offered by CNOs due to their high surface area, the small size of the carbon- oxygen functional groups and the micro-open 3D graphite structures. These properties provide sufficient space for ion storage, hierarchical porous channels for ion transfer and a carbon matrix with high conductivity for electron transfer [180]. Breczko et al. prepared composites of CNOs and poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) or chitosan (chit), and the electrochemical properties were tested and investigated [181]. In another study, CNO–PDDA composite films for dopamine detection were prepared in the presence of ascorbic acid and uric acid in solution [182]. The research group of Giordani et al. prepared a novel near-infrared (NIR)-fluorescent carbon-based nanomaterial, which consists of boron-difluoride azadipyrromethene fluorophores covalently bonded to carbon nano-onions [183]. The cytotoxicity and immunomodulatory properties of the synthesized fluorescein CNO derivative were elucidated and compared with similarly functionalized CNTs. CNOs were found to exhibit efficient cellular uptake, mild inflammatory potential, and low cytotoxicity. These discoveries make CNOs promising materials for biomedical application areas. Moreover, due to a novel concentric graphitic shell structure and a large surface area, CNOs possess many excellent physical properties, such as high electrical conductivity and can be used in the fields of magnetic and gas storage materials, lubricants, for nanoreactors or as substrates for catalyst carriers and electrochemical capacitors [183]. 5. Conclusions and Future Outlook The conversion of biomass into carbon nanofibers offers the possibility to reduce the high carbon cost and provides an alternative to limited petroleum-based resources. Biomass is an available and sustainable material that can be converted into carbon nanofibers for various applications. Currently, there are few studies on the modification of biomass and the basic knowledge of the natural components of biomass and further conversion into carbon nanofibers, although the application potential is promising. This review of carbon nanofibers produced by electrospinning and their potential applications illustrates their usefulness in various technological and biomedical fields. While carbon nanofibers are produced by an electrospinning technique followed by stabilization and carbonization, their physical and chemical properties make them useful in a variety of applications. However, few studies have been conducted on the application of carbon nanofibers from biomass because this topic is still relatively under-researched. In particular, the available information on the application of biomass-derived carbon nanofibers produced by electrospinning isPDF Image | Electrospun Carbon Nanofibers from Biomass and Biomass Blends
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